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'    -  ^ir^^cA?-  .  ^A^>  -L*J>P^*\? 


DRAINING  FOR  PROFIT 


AND 


DRAINING   FOR   HEALTH. 


BY 


GEO.    E.    WAKING,    JR., 

EXG1NEEH  OF  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  CENTRAL  PARK,  NEW  YORK. 


NEW  AND  BEVISED  EDITION. 


"  EVERT  REPORTED    CASE    OF    FAILURE    IN    DRAINAGE  WHICH  WE    HAVE  INVE8TI- 
'  GATED,  HAS  RESOLVED  ITSELF  INTO  IGNOBANCT,  BLUNDERING,  BAD  MANAGEMENT, 

'  OR  BAD  EXECUTION."— Gisborne. 


ILLUSTRATED. 


NEW    YORK. 

ORANGE    JUDD     COMPANY, 
1902 


Bntered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1887,  by  the 

O.   JUDD    CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


re 


UJ3 


NOTE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 


In  presenting  this  book  to  the  public  the  writer  desires  to  nay  that, 
having  in  view  the  great  importance  of  thorough  work  in  land  draining, 
and  believing  it  advisable  to  avoid  everything  which  might  be  construed 
into  an  approval  of  half-way  measures,  he  has  purposely  taken  tbe  most 
radical  view  of  the  whole  subject,  and  has  endeavored  to  emphasize  the 
necessity  for  the  utmost  thoroughness  in  all  draining  operations,  from 
the  first  staking  of  the  lines  to  the  flnal  filling-iu  of  the  ditches. 

That  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  because  of  limited  means,  or  limited 
time,  or  for  other  good  reasons,  to  drain  partially  or  imperfectly,  or 
with  a  view  only  to  temporary  results,  is  freely  acknowledged.  In  these 
cases  the  occasion  for  less  completeness  in  the  work  must  determine 
the  extent  to  which  the  directions  herein  laid  down  are  to  b>;  disre- 
garded ;  but  it  is  believed  that,  even  in  such  cases,  the  principles  on 
which  those  directions  are  founded  should  be  always  borne  in  mind. 

NEWPORT,  R.  L,  1867. 


NOTE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

None  of  the  principles  set  forth  in  the  First  Edition  of  this  book  have 
been  modified  by  later  experience.  Some  of  the  processes  for  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work  have,  however,  been  so  much  improved  as  to  make 
a  revision  necessary. 

NEWPORT,  R.  I.,  1879. 


NOTE  TO  THIRD  EDITION. 

It  is  now  twenty  years  since  this  book  was  first  written.  During  this 
time  the  extension  of  the  tile  drainage  of  agricultural  lands  throughout 
the  North  and  West,  and  to  no  little  extent  throughout  the  South,  has 
been  very  great.  There  are  probably  more  factories  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  drain  tiles  in  active  operation  now  than  there  were  tile-drained 
fanns  in  1866. 

There  has  been  no  modification  of  methods  in  practical  drainasre  at 
all  comparable  with  its  extent.  The  more  important  changes  have  been 
incorporated  with  the  directions  given  in  the  various  chapters  of  this 
work.  Some  improvements  have  been  introduced  since  the  publication 
of  the  Second  Edition  in  1879. 

NEWPOBT,  R.  L,  1887. 

(3) 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


fig.    l.-A  dry  soil,  (from  Dr.  Madden1*  lecture) 18 

•"       2.— Awetsoil       "  "  "       ; 18 

"       3.— A  drained  soil"  "  "        14 

4.— A  map  of  land  with  swamps,  rocks,  springs  and  trees 60 

5. — Map  with  50-foot  squares  and  contour  lines 51 

6. — Levelling  instrument 52 

7.—       "          rod 53 

8.— Map  with  contour  lines 54 

9.— Wells' Clinometer 56 

10. — Stone  pit  to  connect  spring  with  drain 59 

11. — Stone  pit  and  tile-basin  for  same  object 60 

12.— Line  of  saturation  between  drains 65 

13.— Horse-shoe  tile 78 

14.— Sole-tile 80 

15.— Double-sole-tile 80 

16.— Round  tile  (or  pipe)  and  collar 81 

is!—  (-Three  profiles  of  drains  with  different  inclinations 98 

19.- f 

20.— Map  with  drains  and  contour  lines 98 

21.— Profile  of  Drain  C 106 

22.— Set  of  tools,  (from  Drainage  des  Terres  Arables) 114 

23. — Outlet  secured  with  masonry  and  grating,  (from  the  same) 118 

24.— Silt-basin,  built  to  the  surface 121 

25.— Finishing  spade 123 

26.—       "         scoop 123 

27.— Bracing  the  sides  of  drains  in  soft  land 124 

28.— Measuring  staff 124 

29.— Boning-Rod 125 

30.— Position  of  workman,  and  use  of  scoop,  (from  Drainage  des  Terres 

Arables) 126 

31.— Use  of  Boning-Rods 126 

32.— Tile-pick  131 

33.— Lateral  drain  entering  at  top  of  main 134 

34.— Sectional  view  of  joint 134 

35.— Square,  brick  silt-basin 135 

36.— Silt-basin  of  vitrified  pipe 134 

37.— Tile  Silt-basin 136 

38.-Manlfor  ramming 138 

3!).— Board  scraper  for  filling  ditches 140 

40. — Drain  with  a  furrow  at  each  side 141 

41.— Foot-pick 156 

42.— Pug-Mill 179 

43.— Plate  of  dies 180 

44.— Cheap  wooden  machine,  (from  Drainage  des  Terres  Arables) 181 

45. — Mandril  for  carrying  tiles  from  machine,  (from  the  same) 182 

46.— Clay-kiln,  (from  Journal  Royal  Agricultural  Society) I'M 

47.— Dyke  and  ditch 197 

48.- Old  system  of  house  drainage,      I       from  Report  of  Board  of    j     2:« 
49.— New       "  "  "  J  Health,  (England).        1     237 

"      50-57.—  Boymon's  tiles  and  connections 2^-J 

"      58-59. — Outlet  <rratin<r  and  outlet 2-45 

"      60-64. — English  dra'ning  tools .24S 

«     65.— Opening  the  ditch  and  laying  the  tiles 249 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. — LAND    TO    BE    DRAINED,  AND   THE    REASON    WHY. 

Indications  of  the  need  of  draining. — Sources  of  water.— Objections 
to  too  much  water.— Wet  sub-soil. 

CHAPTER   II.— HOW  DRAINS  ACT,  AND  HOW  THEY  AFFECT  THE  SOIL, 

Characteristics  of  a  well  laid  tile-drain.— Surface-water  and  rain-water 
beneficial,  springs  and  soakage-water  injurious.  Cracking  of  stiff  clays. 
Evaporation  and  filtration.— Rain-fall.— Evaporation.— Temperature.— 
Drought.— Porosity  or  mellowness. — Chemical  action  in  the  soil. 

CHAPTER  III. — HOW  TO  GO  TO  WORK  TO  LAY  OUT  A  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINS. 

Amateur  draining.— Maps. — Levelling  instruments.— Outlets  and  loca- 
tion of  drains.— Main  drains.— Spring  water.  -Fall. — Tiles. — Depth  and 
distance  apart.— Direction  of  laterals.— Collars. — Discharge  of  water 
from  drains. 

CHAPTER  IV.— HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  DRAINS. 

Tools.— Marking  the  lines.— Water-courses.— Outlets.— Silt-Basins.— 
Opening  the  ditches.— Grading.— Tile  laying.— Connections.— Covering 
the  tile  and  filling  in.— Collecting  the  water  of  springs.— Amending  the 


CHAPTER  V.— HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE  OF  DRAINS  AND  DRAINED  LAND. 

Removing  obstructions.— Mistake  of  substituting  large  tiles  for  small 
ones  which  have  become  obstructed. — Heavy  lands  should  not  be  tram- 
pled while  wet. 

CHAPTER  VI.— WHAT  DRAINING  COSTS. 

Draining,  expensive  work. — Permanence  and  las* in<r  effe» ts. — Cheap- 
ness versus  economy. — Details  of  cost.  —  (1.  Engineering  and  Su- 
perintendence.—  2.  Digging  the  ditches. — 3.  Grading  the  bottoms.— 
4.  Tiles  and  tile  laying.— 5.  Covering  and  filling.— 6.  Outlets  and  Silt 
Basins.) 
5 


VI  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII. — WILL  IT  PAT? 

Increased  crops  required  to  pay  cost  of  draining. — (Corn,  Wheat,  Rye, 
Oats,  Potatoes,  Barley,  Hay,  Cotton,  Tobacco).— Instances  of  profit. — 
Effect  of  draining  in  facilitating  farm  work. 

CHAPTER  V  in.— HOW  TO  MAKE  DRAINING  TILES.  1 

Materials.— Preparation  of  earths. — Moulding  tiles. — Machines. — Dry- 
ing and^roiling.— Burning.— Kilns. — General  arrangement  of  a  tilery. 

CHAPTER   IX.—  THE  RECLAIMING  OF  SALT  MARSHES. 

Extent  of  marshes  on  the  Atlantic  Coast. — The  English  Fens.— Har- 
laem  Lake.— The  exclusion  of  sea  water.— Removal  of  the  causes  of  in- 
undation from  the  upland.— Removal  of  rain-fall  and  water  of  filtration. 
—Embankments.— Muskrats.— Rivers  and  Creeks.— Outlet  of  drainage. 

CHAPTER   X.— MALARIAL   DISEASES. 

Fever-and-Ague. — Neuralgia. —Vicinity  of  New  York. — Dr.  Bartlett  on 
Periodical  Fever.— Dr.  Metcalf  s  Report  to  U.  8.  Sanitary  Commission. 
— La  Roche  on  the  effect  of  Malarial  Fever. — Dr.  Salisbury  on  the 
"Cause  of  Malarious  Fevers." — English  experience. — Reports  to  the 
British  Parliament. — The  cause  of  Malaria  removed  by  draining. 

CHAPTER  XI.  —HOUSE  DRAINAGE  AND  TOWN  SEWERAGE  is  THEIR  RELA- 
TIONS TO  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

Sewerace.— The  use  of  pipes.— The  new  outfall  sewers  in  London. — 
The  use  of  steam-pumps  to  secure  outlets.  — Utilization  of  sewage 
matters  in  agriculture. — Effects  of  imperfect  house  drainage  on  health. — 
Typhoid  fever. — The  Westminster  fever  in  London.  — Epidemic  at  the 
Maplewood  Young  Ladies  Institute,  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.  —  Lambeth 
Square,  London. — Back  drainage. — Water  supply. — General  Board  of 
Health,  (England).  ! 

Note  to  Chapter  XI,  Second  RJition. — Obstacles  to  back  drainage. — Small 
pipes. — Flush  tanks. — Drainage  of  country  and  village  houses,  etc. 

CHAPTER   XII.— IMPROVEMENTS   IN   DRAINING   TILES. 

The  Boynton  tiles.— Curved  tiles. — Junction  pieces. — Connection  of 
Lateral  with  Main.— Covering  for  outlets. 

GHAPTER  XIII.— LAND  DRAINAGE. — DETAILS  OF  THE  WORK. 

Beginning  at  the  wrong  end. — Methods  of  English  drainers. — Com- 
mencing the  work. — Draining  tools.— Digging  the  ditch  and  laying  the 
tiles.— Wages. 


CHAPTER  L 


LAND  TO  BE  DRAINED  AND  THE  REASONS  WHY. 

Land  which  requires  draining  hangs  out  a  sign  of  its 
condition,  more  or  less  cleai',  according  to  its  circumstances, 
but  always  unmistakable  to  the  practiced  eye.  Sometimes 
it  is  the  broad  banner  of  standing  water,  or  dark,  wet  streaks 
in  plowed  land,  when  all  should  be  dry  and  of  even  color ; 
sometimes  only  a  fluttering  rag  of  distress  in  curling  corn, 
or  wide-cracking  clay,  or  feeble,  spindling,  shivering  grain, 
which  has  survived  a  precarious  winter,  on  the  ice-stilts 
that  have  stretched  its  crown  above  a  wet  soil ;  sometimes 
the  quarantine  flag  of  rank  growth  and  dank  miasmatic  fogs. 

To  recognize  these  indications  is  the  first  office  of  the 
drainer;  the  second,  to  remove  the  causes  from  which  they 
arise. 

If  a  rule  could  be  adopted  which  would  cover  the  varied 
circumstances  of  different  soils,  it  would  be  somewhat  as 
follows :  All  lands,  of  whatever  texture  or  kind,  in  which 
the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  soil  are  filled  with  water, 
(whether  from  rain  or  from  springs,)  within  less  than  four 
feet  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  except  during  and 
immediately  after  heavy  rains,  require  draining. 

Of  course,  the  particles  of  the  soil  cannot  be  made  drv 
nor  should  they  be ;  but,  although  they  should  be  moist 
themselves,  they  should  be  surrounded  with  air,  not  with 
water.  To  illustrate  this :  suppose  that  water  be  poured 
into  a  barrel  filled  with  chips  of  wood  until  it  runs  over  at 
the  top.  The  spaces  between  the  chips  will  be  filled  with 
9 


6  DRAINING   FOB  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

water,  and  the  chips  themselves  will  absorb  enough  to  be- 
come thoroughly  wet ; — this  represents  the  worst  condition 
of  a  wet  soil  If  an  opening  be  made  at  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel,  the  water  which  fills  the  spaces  between  the  chips 
will  be  drawn  off,  and  its  place  will  be  taken  by  air,  while 
the  chips  themselves  will  remain  wet  from  the  water  which 
they  hold  by  absorption.  A  drain  at  the  bottom  of  a  wet 
field  drawa  away  the  water  from  the  free  spaces  between 
its  particles,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  air,  while  the  parti- 
cles hold,  by  attraction,  the  moisture  necessary  to  a  healthy 
condition  of  the  soil. 

There  are  vast  areas  of  land  in  this  country  which  do 
not  need  draining.  The  whole  range  of  sands,  gravels, 
light  loams  and  moulds  allow  water  to  pass  freely  through 
them,  and  are  sufficiently  drained  by  nature,  provided, 
they  are  as  open  at  the  bottom  as  throughout  the  mass. 
A  sieve  filled  with  gravel  will  drain  perfectly ;  a  basin  filled 
with  the  same  gravel  will  not  drain  at  all.  More  than  this, 
a  sieve  filled  with  the  stiffest  clay,  if  not  "puddled,"* 
will  drain  completely,  and  so  will  heavy  clay  soils  on  po- 
rous and  well  drained  subsoils.  Money  expended  in  drain 
ing  such  lands  as  do  not  require  the  operation  is,  of  course 
wasted;  and  when  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  requirement, 

•  Puddling  is  the  kneading  or  rubbing  of  clay  with  water,  a  process  by 
which  it  becomes  almost  impervious,  retaining  this  property  until  thor- 
oughly dried,  when  its  close  union  is  broken  by  the  shrinking  of  its 
parts.  Puddled  clay  remains  practically  impervious  as  long  as  it  is 
saturated  with  water,  and  it  does  not  entirely  lose  this  quality  until  it 
has  been  pulverized  in  a  dry  state. 

A  small  proportion  of  clay  is  sufficient  to  injure  the  porousness  of 
the  soil  by  puddling. — A  clay  subsoil  is  puddled  by  being  plowed 
over  when  too  wet,  and  the  injury  is  of  considerable  duration.  Ruin 
water  collected  in  hollows  of  stiff  land,  by  the  simple  movement  given 
it  by  the  wind,  so  puddles  the  surface  that  it  holds  the  water  while  the 
adjacent  soil  is  dry  and  porous. 

The  term  puddling  will  often  be  used  in  this  work,  and  the  reader  will 
understand,  from  this  explanation,  the  meaning  with  which  it  is  em 
ployed. 


LAND  TO   BE   DRAINED   AND    IHE   SEASONS    WHY.          9 

sufficient  tests  should  be  made  before  the  outlay  for  so 
costly  work  is  encountered. 

There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  much  land  which  only  by 
thorough-draining  can  be  rendered  profitable  for  cultiva- 
tion, or  healthful  for  residence,  and  very  much  more,  des- 
cribed as  "ordinarily  dry  land,"  which  draining  would 
greatly  improve  in  both  productive  value  and  salubrity. 

The  Surface  Indications  of  the  necessity  for  draining 
are  various.  Those  of  actual  swamps  need  no  description ; 
those  of  land  in  cultivation  are  more  or  less  evident  at 
different  seasons,  and  require  more  or  less  care  in  their  ex- 
amination, according  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
they  are  manifested. 

If  a  plowed  field  show,  over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  its 
surface,  a  constant  appearance  of  dampness,  indicating  that, 
as  fast  as  water  is  dried  out  from  its  upper  parts,  more 
is  forced  up  from  below,  so  that  after  a  rain  it  is  much 
longer  than  other  lands  in  assuming  the  light  color  of  dry 
earth,  it  unmistakably  needs  draining. 

A  pit,  sunk  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the 
earth,  may  collect  water  at  its  bottom,  shortly  after  a 
rain ; — this  is  a  sure  sign  of  the  need  of  draining. 

All  tests  of  the  condition  of  land  as  to  water, — such  as 
trial  pits,  etc., — should  be  made,  when  practicable,  during 
the  wet  spring  weather,  or  at  a  time  when  the  springs  and 
brooks  are  running  full.  If  there  be  much  water  in  the 
soil,  even  at  such  times,  it  needs  draining. 

If  the  water  of  heavy  rains  stands  for  some  time  on  the 
surface,  or  if  water  collects  in  the  furrow  while  plowing, 
draining  is  necessary  to  bring  the  land  to  its  full  fertility. 

Other  indications  may  be  observed  in  dry  weather ; — wid- 
cracks  in  the  soil  are  caused  by  the  drying  of  clays,  which, 
by  previous  soaking,  have  been  pasted  together ;  the  curl- 
ing of  corn  often  indicates  that  in  its  early  growth  it  has 
been  prevented,  by  a  wet  subsoil,  from  sending  down  its 
roots  below  the  reach  of  the  sun's  heat,  where  it  would  find, 
1* 


10  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

even  in  the  dryest  weather,  sufficient  moisture  for  a  heaith- 
thy  growth ;  any  severe  effect  oi  drought,  except  on  poor 
sands  and  gravels,  may  be  presumed  to  result  from  the 
same  cause ;  and  a  certain  wiryness  of  grass,  together  with 
a  mossy  or  mouldy  appearance  of  the  ground,  also  indicate 
excessive  moisture  during  some  period  of  growth.  The 
effects  of  drought  are,  of  course,  sometimes  manifested  on 
soils  which  do  not  require  draining, — such  as  those  poo* 
gravels,  which,  from  sheer  poverty,  do  not  enable  plants 
to  form  vigorous  and  penetrating  roots;  but  any  soil  of 
ordinary  richness,  which  contains  a  fair  amount  of  clay, 
will  withstand  even  a  severe  drought,  without  great  injury 
to  its  crop,  if  it  is  thoroughly  drained,  and  is  kept  loose  at 
its  surface. 

Poor  crops  are,  when  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  rea- 
sonably good,  caused  either  by  inherent  poverty  of  the 
land,  or  by  too  great  moisture  during  the  season  of  early 
growth.  Which  of  these  causes  has  operated  in  a  particular 
case  may  be  easily  known.  Manure  will  correct  the  difficulty 
in  the  former  case,  but  in  the  latter  there  is  no  real  remedy 
short  of  such  a  system  of  drainage  as  will  thoroughly  re- 
lieve the  soil  of  its  surplus  water. 

The  Sources  Of  the  Water  in  the  soil  are  various. 
It  either  falls  directly  upon  the  land  as  rain ;  rises  into  it 
from  underlying  springs ;  or  reaches  it  through,  or  over, 
adjacent  land. 

The  rain  water  belongs  to  the  field  on  which  it  falls,  and 
it  would  be  an  advantage  if  it  could  all  be  made  to  pass 
down  through  the  first  three  or  four  feet  of  the  soil,  and  be 
removed  from  below.  That  first  falling  contains  the 
fertilizing  matters  washed  out  from  the  air,  and  in  its  de- 
scent through  the  ground,  these  are  given  up  for  the  use 
of  plants  ;  and  it  performs  other  important  work  among 
the  vegetable  and  mineral  parts  of  the  soil. 

The  spring  water  does  not  belong  to  the  field, — not  a 


LAND  TO  BE  DRAINED  AND  THE  REASONS  WHY.    11 

drop  of  it, — and  it  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  show  itself 
within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  ordinary  plants.  It  has 
fallen  on  other  land,  and,  presumably,  lias  there  done  its 
appointed  work,  and  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  convert 
our  soil  into  a  mere  outlet  passage  for  its  removal. 

The  ooze  water, — that  which  soaks  out  from  adjoining 
land, — is  subject  to  all  the  objections  which  hold  against 
spring  water,  and  should  be  rigidly  excluded. 

But  the  surface  water  which  comes  over  the  surface  of 
higher  ground  in  the  vicinity,  should  be  allowed  every 
opportunity,  which  is  consistent  with  good  husbandry,  to 
work  its  slow  course  over  our  soil, — not  to  run  in  such 
streams  as  will  cut  away  the  surface,  nor  in  such  quantities 
as  to  make  the  ground  inconveniently  wet,  but  to  spread 
itself  in  beneficent  irrigation,  and  to  deposit  the  fertilizing 
matters  which  it  contains,  then  to  descend  through  a  well- 
drained  subsoil,  to  a  free  outlet. 

From  whatever  source  the  water  comes,  it  cannot  remain 
stagnant  in  any  soil  without  permanent  injury  to  its  fertility 

The  Objection  to  too  much  Water  in  the  Soil  will 
be  understood  from  the  following  explanation  of  the  pro- 
cess of  germination,  (sprouting,)  and  growth.  Other  grave 
reasons  why  it  is  injurious  will  be  treated  in  their  proper 
order. 

The  first  growth  of  the  embryo  plant,  (in  the  seed,)  is 
merely  a  change  of  form  and  position  of  the  material  which 
the  seed  itself  contains.  It  requires  none  of  the  element? 
of  the  soil,  and  would,  under  the  same  conditions,  take  plac« 
as  well  in  moist  saw-dust  as  in  the  richest  mold.  The 
conditions  required  are,  the  exclusion  of  light ;  a  certain 
degree  of  heat ;  and  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air,  and 
moisture.  Any  material  which,  without  entirely  exclud- 
ing the  air,  will  shade  the  seed  from  the  light,  yield 
the  needed  quantity  of  moisture,  and  allow  the  accu- 
mulation of  the  requisite  heat,  will  favor  the  chemica) 


12  DBAINING  FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

changes  which,  under  these  conditions,  take  place  in  the 
living  seed.  In  proportion  as  the  heat  is  reduced  by  the 
chilling  effect  of  evaporation,  and  as  atmospheric  air  is  ex- 
cluded by  water,  will  the  germination  of  the  seed  be  re- 
tarded ;  and,  in  case  of  complete  saturation  for  a  long 
time,  absolute  decay  will  ensue,  and  the  germ  will  die. 

The  accompanying  illustrations,  (Figures  1, 2  and  3,)  from 
the  "  Minutes  of  Information  "  on  Drainage,  submitted  by 
the  General  Board  of  Health  to  the  British  Parliament  in 
1852,  represent  the  different  conditions  of  the  soil  as  to 
moisture,  and  the  effect  of  these  conditions  on  the  germi- 
nation of  seeds.  The  -figures  are  thus  explained  by  Dr. 
Madden,  from  whose  lecture  they  are  taken  : 

"  Soil,  examined  mechanically,  is  found  to  consist  entirely 
"  of  particles  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  from  stones  and  peb- 
"  bles  down  to  the  finest  powder ;  and,  on  account  of  their 
"  extreme  irregularity  of  shape,  they  cannot  lie  so  close  to 
"  one  another  as  to  prevent  there  being  passages  between 
"  them,  owing  to  which  circumstance  soil  in  the  mass  is 
"  always  more  or  less  porous.  If,  however,  we  proceed  to 
"  examine  one  of  the  smallest  particles  of  which  soil  is 
"  made  up,  we  shall  find  that  even  this  is  not  always  solid, 
"  but  is  much  more  frequently  porous,  like  soil  in  the  mass. 
"  A  considerable  proportion  of  this  finely-divided  part  of 
"  soil,  the  impalpable  matter,  as  it  is  generally  called,  is 
"  found,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  to  consist  of  broken 
"  down  vegetable  tissue,  so  that  when  a  small  portion  of 
"  the  finest  dust  from  a  garden  or  field  is  placed  under  the 
"  microscope,  we  have  exhibited  to  us  particles  of  every 
"  variety  of  shape  and  structure,  of  which  a  certain  part  is 
"  evidently  of  vegetable  origin. 

"  In  these  figures  I  have  given  a  very  rude  representation 
"  of  these  particles ;  and  I  must  beg  you  particularly  to 
"  remember  that  they  are  not  meant  to  represent  by  any 
"  means  accurately  what  the  microscope  exhibits,  but  are 


LAND  TO  BE  DRAINED,  AND  TUB  EEASONS  WHY. 


18 


"  only  designed  to  serve  as  a  plan  by  which  to  illustrate 

"  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  soil.     On  referring  to 

"  Fig.  1,  we  perceive  that  there  are  two  distinct  classes  of 

"  pores, — first,  the  large  ones,  which  exist  between  the  par- 

"  tides  of  soil,  and  second,  the  very  minute  ones,  which 

"  occur  in  the  particles  themselves ;  and  you  will  at  the 
"  same  time  notice  that, 
"  whereas  all  the  larger 
"  pores, — those  between  the 
"  particles  of  soil,  —  com- 
"  municate  most  freely  with 
"  each  other,  so  that  they 
"  form  cannls,  the  small 
"  pores,  however  freely  they 
"  may  communicate  with 
"  one  another  in  the  interior 
"  of  the  particle  in  which 
Fig.  1.— A  BUY  SOIL.  "  they  occur,  have  no  direct 

"  connection  with  the  pores  of  the  surrounding  particles. 

"  Let  us  now,  therefore,  trace  the  effect  of  this  arrangement. 

"  In  Fig.  1  we  perceive  that 

"  these  canals  and  pores  are 

"  all  empty,  the  soil  being 

"perfectly    dry;    and    the 

"  canals  communicating  free- 

"  ly  at  the  surface  with  the 

"surrounding    atmosphere, 

"  the  whole  will  of  course 

"be  filled    with  air.     If  in 

"  this    condition   a  seed   be 

"  placed   in  the  soil,   at   a, 

"  you  at  once  perceive  that 

"  it  is  freely  supplied  with  air,  but  there  is  no  moisture  ; 

"  therefore,  when  soil  is  perfectly  dry,  a  seed  cannot  grow. 
"  Let  us  turn  our  attention  now  to  Fig.  2.  Here  we 


14  DRAINING    FOR   PROFIT    AND    HEALTH. 

"  perceive  that  both  the  pores  and  canals  are  no  longer 
"  represented  white,  but  black,  this  color  being  used  to  in- 
"  dicate  water ;  in  this  instance,  therefore,  water  has  taken 
"  the  place  of  air,  or,  in  other  words,  the  soil  is  very  wet. 
"  If  we  observe  our  seed  a  now,  we  find  it  abundantly 
"  supplied  with  water,  but  no  air.  Here  again,  therefore, 
"  germination  cannot  take  place.  If  may  be  well  to  state 
"  here  that  this  can  never  occur  exactly  in  nature,  because, 
"  water  having  the  power  of  dissolving  air  to  a  certain 
"  extent,  the  seed  a  in  Fig.  2  is,  in  fact,  supplied  with  a 
"  certain  amount  of  this  necessary  substance  ;  and,  owing 
"  to  this,  germination  does  take  place,  although  by  no 
"  means  under  such  advantageous  circumstances  as  it  would 
"  were  the  soil  in  a  better  condition. 

"  We  pass  on  now  to  Fig.  3.  Here  we  find  a  different 
"  state  of  matters.  The  canals  are  open  and  freely  sup- 
"  plied  with  air,  while  the  pores  are  filled  with  water;  and, 
"  consequently,  you  perceive 
"  that,  while  the  seed  a  has 
"  quite  enough  of  air  from 
"  the  canals,  it  can  never  be 
"  without  moisture,  as  every 
"  particle  of  soil  which 
"  touches  it  is  well  supplied 
"  with  this  necessary  in- 
"  gredient.  This,  then,  is 
"  the  proper  condition  of  soil 
"  for  germination,  and  in 
"  fact  for  every  period  of  the  Fig.  3.—  A  DRAINED  SOIL. 
"  plant's  development ;  and  this  condition  occurs  when  the 
"  soil  is  moist,  but  not  wet, — that  is  to  say,  when  it  has  the 
"  color  and  appearance  of  being  well  watered,  but  when  it 
"  is  still  capable  of  being  crumbled  to  pieces  by  the  hands, 
"  without  any  of  its  particles  adhering  together  in  the 
"  familiar  form  of  mud." 


LAND  TO  BB  DRAINED  AND  THK  REASONS  WHY.    15 

As  plants  grow  under  the  same  conditions,  as  to  soil, 
that  are  necessary  for  the  germination  of  seeds,  the  fore- 
going explanation  of  the  relation  of  water  to  the  particles 
of  the  soil  is  perfectly  applicable  to  the  whole  period  of 
vegetable  growth.  The  soil,  to  the  entire  depth  occupied 
by  roots,  which,  with  most  cultivated  plants  is,  in  drained 
land,  two  or  three  feet,  sometimes  even  more,  should  be 
maintained,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  condition  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  3, — that  is,  the  particles  of  soil  should 
hold  water  by  attraction,  (absorption,)  and  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  particles  should  be  filled  with  air.  Heavy  soils 
which  require  drainage  are  not  in  this  condition.  When 
they  are  not  saturated  with  water,  they  are  generally  dried 
into  lumps,  which  are  almost  as  impenetrable  by  roots  as  so 
many  stones.  The  moisture  which  these  clods  contain  is 
aot  available  to  plants,  and  their  surfaces  are  liable  to  be 
dried  by  the  too  free  circulation  of  air  among  the  wide 
fissures  between  them.  It  is  also  worthy  of  incidental  re- 
mark, that  the  cracking  of  heavy  soils,  shrinking  by 
drought,  is  attended  by  the  tearing  asunder  of  the  smal- 
ler roots  which  may  have  penetrated  them. 

The  Injurious  Effects  of  Standing  Water  in  the  Snh- 
SOil  may  be  best  explained  in  connection  with  the  de- 
scription of  a  soil  which  needs  under-draining.  It  would 
be  tedious,  and  superfluous,  to  attempt  to  detail  the  various 
geological  formations  and  conditions  which  make  the  soil 
unprofitably  wet,  and  render  draining  necessary.  Nor, — as 
this  work  is  intended  as  a  hnnd-book  for  practical  use, — ig 
it  deemed  advisable  to  introduce  the  geological  charts  and 
sections,  which  are  so  often  employed  to  illustrate  the 
various  sources  of  under-ground  water;  interesting  as 
they  are  to  students  of  the  theories  of  agriculture,  and 
important  as  the  study  is,  their  consideration  here  would 
consume  space,  which  it  is  desired  to  devote  only  to  the 
reasons  for,  and  the  practice  of,  thorough-draining 


10  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

To  one  writing  in  advocacy  of  improvements,  oi  any 
kind,  there  is  always  a  temptation  to  throw  a  tub  to  the 
popular  whale,  and  to  suggest  some  make-shift,  by  which 
a  certain  advantage  may  be  obtained  at  half-price.  It  is 
proposed  in  this  essay  to  resist  that  temptation,  and  to  ad- 
here to  the  rule  that  "  whatever  is  worth  doing,  is  worth 
doing  well,"  in  the  belief  that  this  rule  applies  in  no 
other  department  of  industry  with  more  force  than  in  the 
draining  of  land,  whether  for  agricultural  or  for  sanitary 
improvement.  Therefore,  it  will  not  be  recommended  that 
draining  be  ever  confined  to  the  wettest  lands  only;  that,  in 
the  pursuance  of  a  penny-wisdom,  drains  be  constructed 
with  stones,  or  brush,  or  boards;  that  the  antiquated 
horse-shoe  tiles  be  used,  because  they  cost  less  money ;  or 
that  it  will,  in  any  case,  be  economical  to  make  only  such 
drains  as  are  necessary  to  remove  the  water  of  large  springs. 
The  doctrine  herein  advanced  is,  that,  so  far  as  drain- 
ing is  applied  at  all,  it  should  be  done  in  the  most  thor- 
ough and  complete  manner,  and  that  it  is  better  that,  in 
commencing  this  improvement,  a  single  field  be  really  well 
drained,  than  that  the  whole  farm  be  half  drained. 

Of  course,  there  are  some  farms  which  suffer  from  too 
much  water,  which  are  not  worth  draining  at  present; 
many  more  which,  at  the  present  price  of  frontier  lands, 
are  only  worth  relieving  of  the  water  which  stands  on  the 
surface ;  and  not  a  few  on  which  the  quantity  of  stone  to 
be  removed  suggests  the  propriety  of  making  wide  ditches, 
in  which  to  hide  them,  (using  the  ditches,  incidentally,  as 
drains).  A  hand-book  of  draining  is  not  needed  by  the 
owners  of  these  farms ;  their  operations  are  simple,  and  they 
require  no  especial  instruction  for  their  performance.  This 
work  is  addressed  especially  to  those  who  occupy  lands  of 
sufficient  value,  from  their  proximity  to  market,  to  make 
it  cheaper  to  cultivate  well,  than  to  buy  more  land  for  the 
sake  of  getting  a  larger  return  from  poor  cultivation. 


LAND   TO   BE   DRAINED   AND  THE   REASONS   WHY.        17 

WTierever  Indian  corn  is  worth  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  on  the 
farm,  it  will  pay  to  thoroughly  drain  every  acre  of  land 
which  needs  draining.  If,  from  want  of  capital,  this  cannot 
be  done  at  once,  it  is  best  to  first  drain  a  portion  of  the 
farm,  doing  the  work  thoroughly  well,  and  to  apply  the 
return  from  the  improvement  to  its  extension  over  other 
portions  afterward. 

In  pursuance  of  the  foregoing  declaration  of  principles, 
it  is  left  to  the  sagacity  of  the  individual  operator,  to  de- 
cide when  the  full  effect  desired  can  be  obtained,  on  particu- 
lar lands,  without  applying  the  regular  system  of  depth 
and  distance,  which  has  been  found  sufficient  for  the  worst 
cases.  The  directions  of  this  book  will  be  confined  to  the 
treatment  of  land  which  demands  thorough  work. 

Such  land  is  that  which,  at  some  time  during  the  period 
of  vegetation,  contains  stagnant  water,  at  least  in  its  sub- 
soil, within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  ordinary  crops ;  in 
which  there  is  not  a  free  outlet  at  the  bottom  for  all  the 
water  which  it  receives  from  the  heavens,  from  adjoining 
land,  or  from  springs ;  and  which  is  more  or  less  in  the  con- 
dition of  standing  in  a  great,  water-tight  box,  with  open- 
ings to  let  water  in,  but  with  no  means  for  its  escape,  ex- 
cept by  evaporation  at  the  surface ;  or,  having  larger  in- 
lets than  outlets,  and  being  at  times  "  water-logged,"  at 
least  in  its  lower  parts.  The  subsoil,  to  a  great  extent,  con- 
sists of  clay  or  other  compact  material,  which  is  not  im- 
pervious, in  the  sense  in  which  india-rubber  is  impervious, 
(else  it  could  not  have  become  wet,)  but  which  is  suffi 
ciently  so  to  prevent  the  free  escape  of  water.  The  surface 
soil  is  of  a  lighter  or  more  open  character,  because  of  the 
cultivation  it  has  received,  or  of  the  decayed  vegetable 
matter  and  the  roots  which  it  contains. 

In  such  land  the  subsoil  is  wet, — almost  constantly  wet, — 
and  the  falling  rain,  finding  only  the  surface  soil  in  a  condi- 
tion to  receive  it,  soon  fills  this,  and  often  more  than  fills  it, 
and  stands  on  the  surface.  Aftei  the  ram,  come  Tvind  and 


18  DRAINING   FOB  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

Bun,  to  dry  off  the  standing  water, — to  dry  cut  the  free  wa> 
ter  in  the  surface  soil,  and  to  drink  up  the  water  of  the 
subsoil,  which  k  slowly  drawn  from  below.  If  no  spring, 
or  ooze,  keep  up  the  supply,  and  if  no  more  rain  fall, 
the  subsoil  may  be  dried  to  a  considerable  iepth,  crack- 
ing and  gaping  open,  in  wide  fissures,  as  the  clay  loses  its 
water  of  absorption,  and  shrinks.  After  the  surface  soil  has 
become  sufficiently  dry,  the  land  may  be  plowed,  seeds  will 
germinate,  and  plants  will  grow.  If  there  be  not  too  much 
rain  during  the  season,  nor  too  little,  the  crop  may  be  a 
fair  one, — if  the  land  be  rich,  a  very  good  one.  It  is  not  im- 
possible, nor  even  very  uncommon,  for  such  soils  to  produce 
largely,  but  they  are  always  precarious.  To  the  labor 
and  expense  of  cultivation,  which  fairly  earn  a  secure  return, 
there  is  added  the  anxiety  of  chance;  success  is  greatly 
dependent  on  the  weather,  and  the  weather  may  be  bad. 
Heavy  rains,  after  planting,  may  cause  the  seed  to  rot  in  the 
ground,  or  to  germinate  imperfectly  ;  heavy  rains  during 
early  growth  may  give  an  unnatural  development,  or  a 
feeble  character  to  the  plants ;  later  in  the  season,  the  want 
of  sufficient  rain  may  cause  the  crop  to  be  parched  by 
drought,  for  its  roots,  disliking  the  clammy  subsoil  below, 
will  have  extended  within  only  a  few  inches  of  the  surface, 
and  are  too  subject  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  heat ;  in 
harvest  time,  bad  weather  may  delay  the  gathering  until 
the  crop  is  greatly  injured,  and  fall  and  spring  work 
must  often  be  put  off  because  of  wet. 

The  above  is  no  fancy  sketch.  Every  farmer  who  culti- 
vates a  retentive  soil  will  confess,  that  all  of  these  incon- 
veniences conspire,  in  the  same  season,  to  lessen  his  returns, 
with  very  damaging  frequency  ;  and  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  for  him  to  qualify  his  calculations  with  the  pro- 
viso, "  if  I  have  a  good  season."  He  prepares  his  ground, 
plants  his  seed,  cultivates  the  crop,  "  does  his  best," — 
thinks  he  does  his  best,  that  is, — and  trusts  to  Providence 
to  send  him  good  weather.  Such  farming  is  attended  witk 


LAND  TO  BE  DRAINED  AND  TUB  REASONS  WHY.    19 

too  much  uncertainty, — with  too  much  luck, — to  be  sat- 
isfactory ;  yet,  so  long  as  the  soil  remains  in  its  undrained 
condition,  the  element  of  luck  will  continue  to  play  a  very 
important  part  in  its  cultivation,  and  bad  luck  will  often 
play  sad  havoc  with  the  year's  accounts. 

Land  of  this  character  is  usually  kept  hi  grass,  as  long 
as  it  will  bring  paying  crops,  and  is,  not  urifrequently,  only 
available  for  pasture ;  but,  both  for  hay  and  for  pasture,  it 
is  still  subject  to  the  drawback  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
seasons,  and  in  the  best  seasons  it  produces  far  less  than  it 
might  if  well  drained. 

The  effect  of  this  condition  of  the  soil  on  the  health  of  ani- 
mals living  on  it,  and  on  the  health  of  persons  living  near 
it,  is  extremely  unfavorable ;  the  discussion  of  this  branch 
of  the  question,  however,  is  postponed  to  a  later  chapter. 

Thus  far,  there  have  been  considered  only  the  effects  of 
the  undue  moisture  in  the  soil.  The  manner  in  which  these 
effects  are  produced  will  be  examined,  in  connection  with 
the  manner  in  which  draining  overcomes  them, — reducing 
to  the  lowest  possible  proportion,  that  uncertainty  which 
always  attaches  to  human  enterprises,  and  which  is  falsely 
supposed  to  belong  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 

Why  is  it  that  the  farmer  believes,  why  should  any 
one  believe,  in  these  modern  days,  when  the  advance- 
ment of  science  has  so  simplified  the  industrial  processes 
of  the  world,  and  thrown  its  light  into  so  many  uorners, 
•,hat  the  word  "mystery"  is  hardly  to  be  applied  to  any 
>pc.r;ition  of  nature,  save  to  that  which  depends  on  th* 
ih\  ays  mysterious  Principle  of  Life, — when  the  effect  of  any 
combination  of  physical  circumstances  may  be  foretold, 
with  almost  unerring  certainty, — why  should  we  believe 
that  the  success  of  farming  must,  after  all,  depend 
mainly  on  chance  ?  That  an  intelligent  man  should  submit 
the  success  of  his  own  patient  efforts  to  the  operation  of 
"  luck  ;"  that  he  should  deliberately  bet  his  capital,  his  toil, 


20  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

and  his  experience  on  having  a  good  season,  or  a  bad  one,— • 
this  is  not  the  least  of  the  remaining  mysteries.  Some 
chance  there  must  be  in  all  things, — more  in  farming 
than  in  mechanics,  no  doubt ;  but  it  should  be  made  to 
cake  the  smallest  possible  place  in  our  calculations,  by  a 
careful  avoidance  of  every  condition  which  may  place  our* 
crops  at  the  mercy  of  that  most  uncertain  of  all  things — 
the  weather ;  and  especially  should  this  be  the  case,  when 
the  very  means  for  lessening  the  element  of  chance  in  our 
calculations  are  the  best  means  for  increasing  our  crops,  even 
in  the  most  favorable  weather. 


NOTE. — (Third  edition.)  The  investigations  of  the  last  few  years 
have  opened  a  new  vista  in  the  field  of  agricultural  science.  Many  of 
our  most  important  theories  concerning  the  process  by  which  the  soil 
prepares  manure  and  its  own  constituents  for  the  use  of  plants,  seem 
about  to  be  revolutionized.  What  is  described  with  so  much  confidence 
in  the  foregoing  pages  as  the  method  of  aeration,  oxidation  and  chemi- 
cal combination  by  >vhich  organic  manures  are  developed  into  plant 
food  and  what  is  said  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  changes  take 
place,  most  easily  and  completely,  is  probably  entirely  wrong,  as  a  matter 
of  theory.  There  is  hardly  a  doubt  that  the  development  of  plant  food 
from  refuse  organic  matter  of  all  kinds  is  very  largely,  if  not  almost 
entirely,  the  work  of  minute  organisms  known  under  the  generic 
term  ''  bacteria."  whose  office  it  seems  to  be  to  break  down  the  last 
vestige  of  organic  character,  and  to  reduce  organic  matters  to  their 
mineral  elements.  The  bacterium  of  nitrification  is  obviously  one  of 
the  most  important  aids  to  the  preparation  of  organic  plant  food. 

Fortunately,  the  conditions  under  which  these  organisms  act  and 
produce  the  effects  which  have  so  long  been  recognized  in  spite  of 
our  ignorance  of  the  precise  cause,  are  exactly  the  same  as  to  aera- 
tion, moisture,  and  the  absence  of  saturation  as  are  above  insisted  on 
as  necessary  for  the  processes  formerly  supposed  to  do  their  work. 


CHAPTER    II. 


HOW  DRAINS  ACT,  AND  HOW  THEY  AFFEC1  THE  SOIL 

For  reasons  which  will  appear,  in  the  course  of  this  work, 
the  only  sort  of  drain  to  which  reference  is  here  made  is  that 
which  consists  of  a  conduit  of  burned  clay,  (tile,)  placed  at  a 
considerable  depth  in  the  subsoil,  and  enclosed  in  a  compact- 
ed bed  of  the  stiffest  earth  that  can  conveniently  be  found. 
Stone-drains,  brush-drains,  sod-drains,  mole-plow  tracks, 
and  the  various  other  devices  for  forming  a  conduit  for  the 
conveying  away  of  the  soakage-water  of  the  land,  are  not 
without  the  support  of  such  arguments  as  are  based  on  the 
expediency  of  make-shifts,  and  are,  perhaps,  in  rare  cases 
advisable  to  be  used;  but,  for  the  purposes  of  permanent 
improvement,  they  are  neither  so  good  nor  so  economical  as> 
tile-drains.  The  arguments  of  this  book  have  reference  to 
the  latter,  (as  the  most  perfect  of  all  drains  thus  far  in- 
vented,) though  they  will  apply,  in  a  modified  degree,  to  all 
underground  conduits,  so  long  as  they  remain  free  from  ob- 
structions. Concerning  stone-drains,  attention  may  prop- 
erly be  called  to  the  fact  that,  (contrary  to  the  genera] 
opinion  of  farmers,)  they  are  very  much  more  expensive 
than  tile-drains.  So  great  is  the  cost  of  cutting  the  ditches 
to  the  much  greater  size  required  for  stone  than  for  tiles,  of 
handling  the  stones,  of  placing  them  properly  in  the  ditches, 
and  of  covering  them,  after  they  are  laid,  with  a  suitable  bar« 
tier  to  the  rattling  down  of  loose  earth  among  them,  that, 
as  a  mere  question  of  first  cost,  it  is  far  cheaper  to  buy 
tiles  than  to  use  stones,  although  these  may  lie  on  the  SUP- 
21 


22  DRAIN/NG   FOR  PBOFTT   AXD   HEALTH. 

face  of  the  field,  and  only  require  to  be  placed  in  the 
trendies.  In  addition  to  this,  the  great  liability  of  stone- 
drams  to  become  obstructed  in  a  few  years,  and  the  cer« 
tainty  that  tile-drains  will,  practically,  last  forever,  are 
conclusive  arguments  in  favor  of  the  use  of  che  latter. 
If  the  land  is  stony,  it  must  be  cleared ;  this  is  a  proposi- 
tion by  itself,  but  if  the  sole  object  is  to  make  drains,  the 
best  material  should  be  used,  and  this  material  is  not  stone. 

A  well  laid  tile-drain  has  the  following  essential  charac- 
teristics :  —  1.  It  has  a  free  outlet  for  the  discharge  of  all 
water  which  may  run  through  it.  2.  It  has  openings,  at  ita 
joints,  sufficient  for  the  admission  of  all  the  water  which 
may  rise  to  the  level  of  its  floor.  3.  Its  floor  is  laid  on  a 
well  regulated  line  of  descent,  so  that  its  current  may 
maintain  a  flow  of  uniform,  or,  at  least,  always  sufficient 
rapidity,  throughout  its  entire  length. 

Land  which  requires  draining,  is  that  which,  at  some 
time  during  the  year,  (either  from  an  accumulation  of  the 
rains  which  fall  upon  it,  from  the  lateral  flow,  or  soakage, 
from  adjoining  land,  from  springs  which  open  within  it,  or 
from  a  combination  of  two  or  all  of  these  sources,)  becomes 
tilled  with  water,  that  does  not  readily  find  a  natural 
outlet,  but  remains  until  removed  by  evaporation.  Every 
considerable  addition  to  its  water  wells  up,  and  soaks  its 
very  surface ;  and  that  which  is  added  after  it  is  already 
brim  full,  must  flow  off  over  the  surface,  or  lie  in  puddles 
upon  it.  Evaporation  is  a  slow  process,  and  it  becomes 
more  and  more  slow  as  the  level  of  the  water  recedes  from 
the  surface,  and  is  sheltered,  by  the  overlying  earth,  from  the 
action  of  sun  and  wind.  Therefore,  at  least  during  the 
periods  of  spring  and  fall  preparation  of  the  land,  during 
^he  early  growth  of  plants,  and  often  even  in  midsummer, 
the  water-table, — the  top  of  the  water  of  saturation, —  is 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  preventing  the  natura\ 
descent  of  roots,  and,  by  reason  of  the  small  space  to  re- 


HOW  DRAINS   ACT,  AND  APFECT  TUB   s  ML.  ^3 

ceive  fresh  rains,  causing  an  interruption  of  work  for  some 
days  after  each  storm. 

If  such  land  is  properly  furnished  with  tile-drains,  (hav- 
ing a  clear  and  sufficient  outfall,  offering  sufficient  means 
of  entrance  to  the  water  which  reaches  them,  and  carrying 
it,  by  a  uniform  and  sufficient  descent,  to  the  outlet,) 
its  water  will  be  removed  to  nearly,  or  quite,  the  level 
of  the  floor  of  the  drains,  and  its  water-table  will  be  at  a 
distance  of  some  feet  from  the  surface,  leaving  the  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  all  of  the  soil  above  it  filled  with 
air  instead  of  water.  The  water  below  the  drains  stands 
at  a  level,  like  any  other  water  that  is  dammed  up.  Rain 
water  falling  on  the  soil  will  descend  by  its  own  weight  to 
this  level,  and  the  water  will  rise  into  the  drains,  as  it 
would  flow  over  a  dam,  until  the  proper  level  is  again  at- 
tained. Spring  water  entering  from  below,  and  water  ooz- 
ing from  the  adjoining  land,  will  be  removed  in  like  man 
ner,  and  the  usual  condition  of  the  soil,  above  the  water- 
table,  will  be  that  represented  in  Fig.  3,  the  condition  which 
is  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  useful  plants. 

In  the  heaviest  storms,  some  water  will  flow  over  the 
surface  of  even  the  dryest  beach-sand;  but,  in  a  well 
drained  soil  the  water  of  ordinary  rains  will  be  at  once 
absorbed,  will  descend  toward  the  water-table,  and 
will  be  removed  by  the  drains,  so  rapidly,  even  in  heavy 
clays,  as  to  leave  the  ground  fit  for  cultivation,  and  in  a 
condition  for  steady  growth,  within  a  short  time  after  the 
rain  ceases.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  drained  soil  has 
room  between  its  particles  for  about  one  quarter  of  its  bulk 
of  water ; — that  is,  four  inches  of  drained  soil  contains  free 
space  enough  to  receive  a  rain-fall  one  inch  in  depth,  and,  by 
the  same  token,  four  feet  of  drained  soil  can  receive  twelve 
inches  of  rain, —  more  than  is  known  ever  to  have  fallen  in 
twenty-four  hours,  since  the  deluge,  and  more  than  one 
quarter  of  the  annual  rain-fall  in  the  United  States. 


24  DEAIN1NG  FOB  PBOPTT  AND   HEALTH. 

As  was  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  the  water  which 
reaches  the  soil  may  be  considered  under  two  heads : 

1st — That  which  reaches  its  surface,  whether  directly  by 
rain,  or  by  the  surface  flow  of  adjoining  land. 
•     2d — That  which  reaches  it  below  the  surface,  by  springs 
and  by  soakage  from  the  lower  portions  of  adjoining  land. 

The  first  of  these  is  beneficial,  because  it  contains  fresh 
air,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  and  heat,  obtained 
from  the  atmosphere ;  and  the  flowage  water  contains,  in 
addition,  some  of  the  finer  or  more  soluble  parts  of  the 
land  over  which  it  has  passed.  The  second,  is  only  so  much 
dead  water,  which  has  already  given  up,  to  other  soil,  all 
that  ours  could  absorb  from  it,  and  its  effect  is  chilling  and 
hurtful  This  being  the  case,  the  only  interest  we  can  have 
in  it,  is  to  keep  it  down  from  the  surface,  and  remove  it  as 
rapidly  as  possible. 

The  water  of  the  first  sort,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be 
arrested  by  every  device  within  our  reach.  If  the  land  is 
steep,  the  furrows  in  plowing  should  be  run  horizontally 
along  the  hill,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  water  over  the 
surface,  and  to  allow  it  to  descend  readily  into  the  ground 
Steep  grass  lands  may  have  frequent,  small,  horizontal 
ditches  for  the  same  purpose.  If  the  soil  is  at  all  heavy,  it 
should  not,  when  wet,  be  trampled  by  animals,  lest  it  be 
puddled,  and  thus  made  less  absorptive.  If  in  cultivation, 
the  surface  should  be  kept  loose  and  open,  ready  to  receive 
all  of  the  rain  and  irrigation  water  that  reaches  it. 

In  descending  through  the  soil,  this  water,  in  summer, 
gives  up  heat  which  it  received  from  the  air  and  from  the 
heated  surface  of  the  ground,  and  thus  raises  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  lower  soiL  The  fertilizing  matters  which  it  has 
obtained  from  the  air, — carbonic  acid,  ammonia  and  nitric 
acid, — are  extracted  from  it,  and  held  for  the  use  of  grow- 
ing plants.  Its  fresh  air,  and  the  air  which  follows  the  de- 
scent of  the  water-table,  carries  oxygen  to  the  organic  and 


HOW   DRAINS   ACT,   A3TD  AFPEC1   THE   SOIL.  S5 

mineral  parts  of  the  soil,  and  hastens  the  rust  and  decay 
by  which  these  are  prepared'  for  the  uses  of  vegetation. 
The  water  itself  supplies,  by  means  of 'their  power  of  ab- 
sorption, the  moisture  which  is  needed  by  the  particles  of 
the  soil ;  and,  having  performed  its  work,  it  goes  down  to 
the  level  of  the  water  below,  and,  swelling  the  tide  above 
the  brink  of  the  dam,  sets  the  drains  running,  until  it  is 
all  removed.  In  its  descent  through  the  ground,  this  wa- 
ter clears  the  passages  through  which  it  flows,  leaving  a 
better  channel  for  the  water  of  future  rains,  so  that,  in 
time,  the  heaviest  clays,  which  will  drain  but  imperfectly 
during  the  first  one  or  two  years,  will  pass  water,  to  a 
depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  freely  though  less  readily  than 
the  lighter  loams. 

Now,  imagine  the  drains  to  be  closed  up,  leaving  no  out- 
let for  the  water,  save  at  the  surface.  This  amounts  to  a 
raising  of  the  dam  to  that  height,  and  additions  to  the  wa- 
ter will  bring  the  water-table  even  with  the  top  of  the  soil. 
No  provision  being  made  for  the  removal  of  spring  and 
soakage  water>  this  causes  serious  inconvenience,  and 
even  the  rain-fall,  finding  nr  room  in  the  soil  for  its 
reception,  can  only  lie  upon,  or  flow  over,  the  surface, — 
not  yielding  to  the  soil  the  fertilizing  matters  which  it  con- 
tains, but,  on  the  contrary,  washing  away  some  of  its  finer 
and  looser  parts.  The  particles  of  the  soil,  instead  of  be- 
ing furnished,  by  absorption,  with  a  healthful  amount  of 
moisture,  are  made  unduly  wet;  and  the  spaces  between 
them,  being  filled  with  water,  no  air  can  enter,  whereby  the 
various  processes  by  which  the  inert  minerals,  and  the 
roots  and  manure,  in  the  soil  are  prepared  for  the  use  of 
vegetation,  are  greatly  retarded. 

Instead  of  carrying  the  heat  of  the  air,  and  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  to  the  subsoil,  the  rain  only  adds  so 
much  to  the  amount  of  water  to  be  evaporated,  and  in- 
creases, by  so  much,  the  chilling  effect  of  evaporation. 


26  DRAINING  FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

Instead  of  opening  the  spaces  of  the  soil  for  the  more 
free  passage  of  water  and  air,  as  is  done  by  descending 
water,  that  which  ascends  by  evaporation  at  the  surface 
brings  up  soluble  matters,  which  it  leaves  at  the  point 
where  it  becomes  a  vapor,  forming  a  crust  that  prevent* 
the  free  entrance  of  air  at  those  times  when  the  soil  is  dry 
enough  to  afford  it  space  for  circulation. 

Instead  of  crumbling  to  the  fine  condition  of  a  loam,  as 
it  does,  when  well  drained,  by  the  descent  of  water 
through  it,  heavy  clay  soil,  being  rapidly  dried  by  evapora- 
tion, shrinks  into  hard  masses,  separated  by  wide  cracks. 

In  short,  in  wet  seasons,  on  such  land,  the  crops  will  be 
greatly  lessened,  or  entirely  destroyed,  and  in  dry  seasons, 
cultivation  will  always  be  much  more  laborious,  more  hur- 
ried, and  less  complete,  than  if  it  were  well  drained. 

The  foregoing  general  statements,  concerning  the  action 
of  water  in  drained,  and  in  undrained  land,  and  of  the  effects 
of  its  removal,  by  gravitation,  and  by  evaporation,  are  based 
on  facts  which  have  been  developed  by  long  practice,  and 
on  a  rational  application  of  well  know  principles  of  science. 
These  facts  and  principles  are  worthy  of  examination,  and 
they  are  set  forth  below,  somewhat  at  length,  especially' 
with  reference  to  Absorption  and  Filtration  ;  Evapora- 
tion ;  Temperature;  Drought;  Porosity  or  Mellowness ; 
and  Chemical  Action. 

ABSORPTION  AND  FILTRATION. — The  process  of  under- 
draining  i&  a  process  of  absorption  and  filtration,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  surface-flow  and  evaporation.  The  com- 
pleteness with  which  the  latter  are  prevented,  and  the 
former  promoted,  is  the  measure  of  the  completeness  of  the 
improvement.  If  water  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
until  evaporated,  or  if  it  flow  off  over  the  surface,  it  will 
do  harm ;  if  it  soak  away  through  the  soil,  it  will  do  good. 
The  rapidity  and  ease  with  which  it  is  absorbed,  and,  there- 
fore the  extent  to  which  under-draining  is  successful,  de 


HOW   DRAINS    ACT,   AND   AFFECT  THE   SOIL.  27 

pend  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  on  the 
manner  in  which  its  texture  is  affected  by  the  drying  action 
of  sun  and  wind,  and  by  the  downward  passage  of  water 
through  it. 

In  drying,  all  soils,  except  pure  sands,  shrink,  and  occupy 
less  space  than  when  they  are  saturated  with  water.  They 
shrink  more  or  less,  according  to  their  composition,  is  will 
be  seen  by  the  following  table  of  results  obtained  in  the 
experiments  of  Schuebler: 


1,000  Parts  of 

Will  Contract 
Parts. 

1,000  Parts  of 

Will  Contract 
Parts. 

'Stron"-  Limey  Soil 

50. 

Pure  Clay  

183. 

60 

Peat                 

900. 

|Brick  Maker's  Clay  

85. 

Professor  Johnson  estimates  that  peat  and  heavy  clay 
shrink  one-fifth  of  their  bulk. 

If  soil  be  dried  suddenly,  from  a  condition  of  extreme 
wetness,  it  will  be  divided  into  large  masses,  or  clods,  sep- 
arated by  wide  cracks.  A  subsequent  wetting  of  the  clods, 
which  is  not  sufficient  to  expand  it  to  its  former  condition, 
will  not  entirely  obliterate  the  cracks,  and  the  next  drying 
will  be  followed  by  new  fissures  within  the  clods  them- 
selves; and  a  frequent  repetition  of  this  process  will  make 
the  network  of  fissures  finer  and  finer,  until  the  whole  mass 
of  the  soil  is  divided  to  a  pulverulent  condition.  This  is  the 
process  which  follows  the  complete  draining  of  such  lands 
as  contain  large  proportions  of  clay  or  of  peat.  It  is  re- 
tarded, in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  free  water  in  the 
soil  which  is  evaporated  from  the  surface,  and  in  propor- 
tion to  the  trampling  of  the  ground,  when  very  wet.  It  is 
greatly  facilitated  by  frost,  and  especially  by  deep  frost. 

The  fissures  which  are  formed  by  this  process  are,  in  time, 
occupied  by  the  roots  of  plants,  which  remain  and  decay, 
when  tlv»  crop  has  been  removed,  and  which  prevent  the 
soil  from  ever  again  closing  on  itself  so  completely  as  before 
their  penetration ;  and  each  season's  crop  adds  new  rooti 


28  DRAINING   FOB  PBOFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

to  make  the  separation  more  complete  and  more  universal  i 
but  it  is  only  after  the  water  of  saturation,  which  occupies 
the  lower  soil  for  so  large  a  part  of  the  year,  has  been  re- 
moved by  draining,  that  roots  can  penetrate  to  any  con- 
siderable depth,  and,  in  fact,  the  cracking  of  undrained 
soils,  in  drying,  never  extends  beyond  the  separation  into 
large  masses,  because  eacli  heavy  rain,  by  saturating  the 
soil  and  expanding  it  to  its  full  capacity,  entirely  obliterates 
the  cracks  and  forms  a  solid  mass,  in  which  the  operation 
has  to  be  commenced  anew  with  the  next  drying. 

Mr.  Gisborne,  in  his  capital  essay  on  "Agricultural 
Drainage,"  which  appeared  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  No, 
CLXXI,  says :  "  We  really  thought  that  no  one  was  so  ig- 
M  norant  as  not  to  be  aware  that  clay  lands  always  shrink 
"  and  crack  with  drought,  and  the  stiffer  the  clay  the 
"  greater  the  shrinking,  as  brickmakers  well  know.  In  the 
"  great  drought,  36  years  ago,  we  saw  in  a  very  retentive 
"  soil  in  the  Vale  of  Belvoir,  cracks  which  it  was  not 
"  very  pleasant  to  ride  among.  This  very  summer,  on  land 
"  which,  with  reference  to  this  very  subject,  the  owner 
"  stated  to  be  impervious,  we  put  a  walking  stick  three 
"  feet  into  a  sun-crack,  without  finding  a  bottom,  and  the 
"  whole  surface  was  what  Mr.  Parkes,  not  inappropriately, 
"  calls  a  network  of  cracks.  When  heavy  rain  comes 
"  upon  a  soil  in  this  state,  of  course  the  cracks  fill,  the  clay 
"  imbibes  the  water,  expands,  and  the  cracks  are  abolished. 
"  But  if  there  are  four  or  five  feet  parallel  drains  in  the 
'  land,  the  water  passes  at  once  into  them  and  is  carried 
*  off  In  fact,  when  heavy  rain  falls  upon  clay  lands  in  this 
"  cracked  state,  it  passes  off  too  quickly,  without  adequate 
"  filtration.  Into  the  fissures  of  the  undrained  soil  the  roots 
"  only  penetrate  to  be  perished  by  the  cold  and  wet  of  the 
"  succeeding  winter ;  but  in  the  drained  soil  the  roots  fol- 
"low  the  threads  of  vegetable  mold  which  have  been 
M  washed  into  the  cracks,  and  get  an  abiding  tenure.  Earth 


HOW  DRAINS  ACT,   AND  AFFECT  THE  SOIL  29 

"  worms  follow  either  the  roots  or  the  mold.  Permanent 
"  schisms  are  established  in  the  clay,  and  its  whole  charac- 
"  ter  is  changed.  An  old  farmer  in  a  midland  county  began 
"  with  20-inch  drains  across  the  hill,  and,  without  ever 
"  reading  a  word,  or,  we  believe,  conversing  with  any  one 
0  on  the  subject,  poked  his  way,  step  by  step,  to  four  or 
"  five  feet  drains,  in  the  line  of  steepest  descent.  Showing 
"  us  his  drains  this  spring,  he  said :  '  They  do  better  year 
"  by  year ;  the  water  gets  a  habit  of  coming  to  them ' — a  very 
"  correct  statement  of  fact,  though  not  a  very  philosophical 
"  explanation." 

Alderman  Mechi,  of  Tiptree  Hall,  says:  "Filtration 
"  may  be  too  sudden,  as  is  well  enough  shown  by  our  hot 
"  sands  and  gravels ;  but  I  apprehend  no  one  will  ever 
"  fear  rendering  strong  clays  too  porous  and  manageable. 
"  The  object  of  draining  is  to  impart  to  such  soils  the 
"  mellowness  and  dark  color  of  self  drained,  rich  and  fria- 
"  ble  soil.  That  perfect  drainage  and  cultivation  will  do 
•'  this,is  a  well  known  fact.  I  know  it  in  the  case  of  my 
"  own  garden.  How  it  does  so  I  am  not  chemist  enough 
"  to  explain  in  detail ;  but  it  is  evident  the  effect  is  pro- 
"  duced  by  the  fibers  of  the  growing  crop  intersecting 
"  every  particle  of  the  soil,  which  they  never  could  do  be- 
"  fore  draining ;  these,  with  their  excretions,  decompose  on 
"  removal  of  the  crop,  and  are  acted  on  by  the  alternating 
"  air  and  water,  which  also  decompose  and  change,  in  a 
"  degree,  the  inorganic  substances  of  the  soil.  Thereby 
"  drained  land,  which  was,  before,  impervious  to  air  and 
u  water,  and  consequently  unavailable  to  air  and  roots, 
"  to  worms,  or  to  vegetable  or  animal  life,  becomes,  by 
"  drainage,  populated  by  both,  and  is  a  great  chemical 
"  laboratory,  as  our  own  atmosphere  is  subject  to  all  the 
*  changes  produced  by  animated  nature." 

Experience  proves  that  the  descent  of  water  through  the 
Boil  renders  it  more  porous,  so  that  it  is  easier  for  the 


80  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

water  falling  afterward  to  pass  down  to  the  drains,  but  no 
very  satisfactory  reason  for  this  has  been  presented,  beyond 
that  which  is  connected  with  the  cracking  of  the  soil.  The 
fact  is  well  stated  in  the  following  extract  from  a  letter  to 
the  Country  Gentleman  : 

"  A  simple  experiment  will  convince  any  farmer  that  the 
"  best  means  of  permanently  deepening  and  mellowing  the 
"  soil  is  by  thorough  drainage,  to  afford  a  ready  exit  for  all 
"  surplus  moisture.  Let  him  take  in  spring,  while  wet,  a 
"  quantity  of  his  hardest  soil, — such  as  it  is  almost  impossi- 
"  ble  to  plow  in  summer, — such  as  presents  a  baked  and 
"  brick-like  character  under  the  influence  of  drought, — and 
r<  place  it  in  a  box  or  barrel,  open  at  the  bottom,  and  fre- 
*  quently  during  the  season  let  him  saturate  it  with  water. 
"  He  will  find  it  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  porous 
"  and  friable, — holding  water  less  and  less  perfectly  as  the 
"  experiment  proceeds,  and  in  the  end  it  will  attain  a  state 
"  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  plants  from  its  deep  and 
"  mellow  character." 

It  is  equally  a  fact  that  the  ascent  of  water  in  the  soil, 
together  with  its  evaporation  at  the  surface,  has  the  effect 
of  making  the  soil  impervious  to  rains,  and  of  covering  the 
land  with  a  crust  of  hard,  dry  earth,  which  forms  a  barrier 
to  the  free  entrance  of  air.  So  far  as  the  formation  of  crust 
is  concerned,  it  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the  «vatt* 
in  the  soil  holds  in  solution  certain  mineral  matters,  whit  b 
it  deposits  at  the  point  of  evaporation,  the  collection  of 
these  finely  divided  matters  serving  to  completely  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  particles  of  soil  at  the  surface, — pasting 
them  together,  as  it  were.  How  far  below  the  surface  thiy 
direct  action  extends, cannot  be  definitely  determined ;  but 
the  process  being  carried  on  for  successive  years,  accumu- 
lating a  quantity  of  these  fine  particles,  each  season,  they 
are,  by  cultivation,  and  by  the  action  of  heavy  showers 
falling  at  a  time  when  the  soil  is  more  or  less  dry,  di» 
tributed  through  a  certain  depth,  and  ordinarily,  in  aJJ 


HOW   DBAINS  ACT,   AND  AFFECT  THE  SOIL.  31 

probability,  are  most  largely  deposited  at  the  top  of  the 
subsoil  It  is  found  in  practice  that  the  first  foot  in  depth 
of  retentive  soils  is  more  retentive  than  that  which  lies 
below.  If  this  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  this  greater  inv 
perviousness  is  correct,  it  will  be  readily  seen  how  water, 
descending  to  the  drains,  by  carrying  these  soluble  and 
finer  parts  downward  and  distributing  them  more  equally 
through  the  whole,  should  render  the  soil  more  porous. 

Another  cause  of  the  retention  of  water  by  the  surface 
soil,  often  a  very  serious  one,  is  the  puddling  which 
clayey  lands  undergo  by  working  them,  or  feeding  cattle 
upon  them,  when  they  are  wet.  This  is  always  injurious. 
By  draining,  land  is  made  fit  for  working  much  earlier  *n 
the  spring,  and  is  sooner  ready  for  pasturing  after  a  rain, 
but,  no  matter  liow  thoroughly  the  draining  has  been  done, 
if  there  is  much  clay  in  the  soil,  the  effect  of  the  improve- 
ment will  be  made  less  by  plowing  or  trampling,  while 
very  wet ;  this  impervious  condition  will  be  removed  in 
time,  of  course,  but,  while  it  lasts,  it  places  us  more  or 
less  at  the  mercy  of  the  weather  as  we  were  before  a 
ditch  was  dug. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  the  word  impervious,  it 
should  be  understood  that  it  is  not  used  in  its  strict  sense, 
for  no  substance  which  can  be  wetted  by  water  is  really 
impervious,  and  the  most  retentive  soil  will  become  wet. 
Gisborne  states  the  case  clearly  when  he  says  :  "  Is  your 
"  subsoil  moister  after  the  rains  of  mid-winter,  than  it  is 
"  after  the  drought  of  mid-summer  ?  If  it  is,  it  will  drain." 

The  proportion  of  the  rain-fall  which  will  be  filtered 
through  the  soil  to  the  level  of  the  drains,  varies  with  the 
composition  of  the  soil,  and  with  the  effect  that  the 
draining  has  had  upon  them. 

In  a  very  loose,  gravelly,  or  sandy  soil,  which  has  a  per- 
feet  outlet  for  water  below,  all  but  the  heaviest  falls  of 
rain  will  sink  at  once,  while  on  a  heavy  clay,  no  matter 


82  DRAINING   FOB    PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

how  well  it  is  drained,  the  process  of  filtration  will  be 
much  more  slow,  and  if  the  land  be  steeply  inclined,  some 
of  the  water  of  ordinarily  heavy  rains  must  flow  off  over 
the  surface,  unless,  by  horizontal  plowing,  or  catch  drains 
on  the  surface,  its  flow  be  retarded  until  it  has  time  to 
enter  the  soiL 

The  power  of  drained  soils  to  hold  water,  by  absorption, 
is  very  great.  A  cubic  foot  of  very  dry  soil,  of  favorable 
character,  has  been  estimated  to  absorb  within  its  particles, 
— holding  no  free  water,  or  water  of  drainage, — about  one- 
half  its  bulk  of  water;  if  this  is  true,  the  amount  required 
to  moisten  a  dry  soil,  four  feet  deep,  giving  no  excess  to  be 
drained  away,  would  amount  to  a  rain  fall  of  from  20  to  30 
inches  in  depth.  If  we  consider,  in  addition  to  this,  the 
amount  of  water  drained  away,  we  shall  see  that  the  soil 
has  sufficient  capacity  for  the  reception  of  all  the  rain  wa- 
ter that  falls  upon  it. 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  absorption  and  filtra- 
tion, it  is  interesting  to  investigate  the  movements  of 
water  in  the  ground.  The  natural  tendency  of  water,  in  the 
soil  as  well  as  out  of  it,  is  to  descend  perpendicularly 
toward  the  center  of  the  earth  If  it  meet  a  flat  layer  of 
gravel  lying  upon  clay,  and  having  a  free  outlet,  it  will 
follow  the  course  of  the  gravel, — laterally, — and  find  the 
outlet ;  if  it  meet  water  which  is  dammed  up  in  the  soil, 
and  which  has  an  outlet  at  a  certain  elevation,  as  at  the 
floor  of  a  drain,  it  will  raise  the  general  level  of  the  water, 
ani  force  it  out  through  the  drain ;  if  it  meet  water  which 
fcas  no  outlet,  it  will  raise  its  level  until  the  soil  is  filled,  or 
until  it  accumulates  sufficient  pressure,  (head,)  to  force  it« 
way  through  the  adjoining  lands,  or  until  it  finds  an  out- 
let at  the  surface. 

The  first  two  cases  named  represent  the  condition  which 
it  is  desirable  to  obtain,  by  either  natural  or  artificial 
drainage ;  the  third  case  is  the  only  one  which  makes 


HOW   D14AINS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT   THE   SOIL.  83 

drainage  necessary.  It  is  a  fixed  rule  that  water,  descend- 
ing in  the  soil,  will  find  the  lowest  outlet  to  which  there 
exists  a  channel  through  which  it  can  flow,  and  that  if,  after 
heavy  rains,  it  rise  too  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
proper  remedy  is  to  tap  it  at  a  lower  level,  and  thus  re- 
move the  water  table  to  the  proper  distance  from  the  sur- 
face. This  subject  will  be  more  fully  treated  hi  a  future 
chapter,  in  considering  the  question  of  the  depth,  and  the 
intervals,  at  which  drains  should  be  placed. 

Evaporation. — By  evaporation  is  meant  the  process  by 
which  a  liquid  assumes  the  form  of  a  gas  or  vapor,  or 
"  dries  up."  Water,  exposed  to  the  air,  is  constantly  under- 
going this  change.  It  is  changed  from  the  liquid  form,  and 
becomes  a  vapor  in  the  air.  Water  in  the  form  of  vapor 
occupies  nearly  2000  times  the  space  that  it  filled  as  a 
liquid.  As  the  vapor  at  the  time  of  its  formation  is  of  the 
same  temperature  with  the  water,  and,  from  its  highly  ex- 
panded condition,  requires  a  great  amount  of  heat  to  main- 
tain it  as  vapor,  it  follows  that  a  given  quantity  of  water 
contains,  in  the  vapory  form,  many  times  as  much  heat  aa 
in  the  liquid  form.  This  heat  is  taken  from  surrounding 
substances, — from  the  ground  and  from  the  air, — which  are 
thereby  made  much  cooler.  For  instance,  if  a  showei 
moisten  the  ground,  on  a  hot  summer  day,  the  drying  up 
of  the  water  will  cool  both  the  ground  and  the  air.  If  we 
place  a  wet  cloth  on  the  head,  and  hasten  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  by  fanning,  we  cool  the  head ;  if  we  wrap 
a  wet  napkin  around  a  pitcher  of  water,  and  place  it  in  a 
current  of  air,  the  water  in  the  pitcher  is  made  cooler, 
by  giving  up  its  heat  to  the  evaporating  water  of  the 
napkin ;  when  we  sprinkle  water  on  the  floor  of  a  room, 
its  evaporation  cools  the  air  of  the  room. 

So  great  is  the  effect  of  evaporation,  on  the  temperature 
of  the  soil,  that  Dr.  Madden  found  that  the  soil  of  a 
drained  field,  in  A*  hich  most  of  the  water  was  removed 
3* 


34  DBAFnXG    FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

from  below,  was  6^°  Far.  wanner  than  a  similar  soil  ur> 
drained,  from  which  the  water  had  to  be  removed  by 
evaporation.  This  difference  of  6^°  is  equal  to  a  difference 
of  elevation  of  1,950  feet. 

It  has  been  found,  by  experiments  made  in  England,  that 
the  average  evaporation  of  water  from  wet  soils  is  equal 
to  a  depth  of  two  inches  per  month,  from  May  to  August, 
inclusive ;  in  America  it  must  be  very  much  greater  than 
this  in  the  summer  months,  but  this  is  surely  enough  for 
the  purposes  of  illustration,  as  two  inches  of  water,  over  an 
acre  of  land,  would  weigh  about  two  hundred  tons.  The 
amount  of  heat  required  to  evaporate  this  is  immense,  and 
a  very  large  part  of  it  is  taken  from  the  soil,  which,  thereby, 
becomes  cooler,  and  less  favorable  for  a  rapid  growth  It 
is  usual  to  speak  of  heavy,  wet  lands  as  being  "  cold,*'  and 
it  is  now  seen  why  they  are  so. 

.If  none  of  the  water  which  falls  on  a  field  is  removed  by 
drainage,  (natural  or  artificial,)  and  if  none  runs  off  from 
the  surface,  the  whole  rain-fall  of  a  year  must  be  removed 
by  evaporation,  and  the  cooling  of  the  soil  will  be  propor- 
tionately great.  The  more  completely  we  withdraw  this 
water  from  the  surface,  and  carry  it  off  in  under-ground 
drains,  the  more  do  we  reduce  the  amount  to  be  removed 
by  evaporation.  In  land  which  is  well  drained,  the  amount 
evaporated,  even  in  summer,  will  not  be  sufficient  to  so 
lower  the  temperature  of  the  soil  as  to  retard  the  growth 
of  plants ;  the  small  amount  dried  out  of  the  particles  of 
the  soil,  (water  of  absorption,)  will  only  keep  it  from  being 
raised  to  too  great  a  heat  by  the  mid-summer  sun. 

An  idea  of  the  amount  of  heat  lost  to  the  soil,  by  the 
evaporation  of  water,  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  to 
evaporate,  by  artificial  heat,  the  amount  of  water  contained 
in  a  rain-fall  of  two  inches  on  an  acre,  (200  tons,)  would 
require  over  20  tons  of  coal.  Of  course  a  considerable—- 
probably by  far  the  larger, — part  of  the  heat  taken  up  La 


HOW   DRAINS   ACT,   AND  AFFECT  TUB   SOU*  35 

the  process  of  evaporation  is  furnished  by  the  air;  but  the 
amount  abstracted  from  the  soil  is  great,  and  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  removed  by  this  pro- 
cess ;  hence,  the  more  we  remove  by  draining,  the  more 
heat  we  retain  in  the  ground. 

The  season  of  growth  is  lengthened  by  draining,  be 
cause,  by  avoiding  the  cooling  effects  of  evaporation,  ger- 
mination is  more  rapid,  and  the  young  plant  grows  stead- 
ily from  the  start,  instead  of  struggling  against  the  re- 
tarding influence  of  a  cold  soil. 

Temperature • — The  temperature  of  the  soil  has  great 
effect  on  the  germination  of  seeds,  the  growth  of  plants, 
and  the  ripening  of  crops. 

Gisborne  says :  "  The  evaporation  of  1  Ib.  of  water 
**  lowers  the  temperature  of  100  Ibs.  of  soil  10°, — that  is 
"  to  say,  that,  if  to  100  Ibs.  of  soil,  holding  all  the  water 
"  it  can  by  attraction,  but  containing  no  water  of  drain- 
"  age,  is  added  1  Ib.  of  water  which  it  has  no  means  of 
"  discharging,  except  by  evaporation,  it  will,  by  the  time 
"  that  it  has  so  discharged  it,  be  10°  colder  than  it  would 
"  have  been,  if  it  had  the  power  of  discharging  this  1  Ib. 
"  by  nitration  ;  or,  more  practically,  that,  if  rain,  entering 
"  in  the  proportion  of  1  Ib.  to  100  Ibs.  into  a  retentive 
"  soil,  which  is  saturated  with  water  of  attraction,  is  dis- 
"  charged  by  evaporation,  it  lowers  the  temperature  of 
"that  soil  10°.  If  the  soil  has  the  means  of  discharging 
"  that  1  Ib.  of  water  by  nitration,  no  effect  is  produced  be- 
"  yond  what  is  due  to  the  relative  temperatures  of  the 
"  rain  and  of  the  soil." 

It  has  been  established  by  experiment  that  four  time« 
as  much  heat  is  required  to  evaporate  a  certain  quantity 
of  water,  as  to  raise  the  same  quantity  from  the  freezing 
to  the  boiling  point. 

It  is,  probably,  in  consequence  of  this  cooling  effect 
of  evaporation,  that  wet  lands  are  warmest  when  shaded, 


36  DBAHTOTG   FOE   PROFIT  AKT>    HEALTH. 

because,  under  this  condition,  evaporation  is  lesfe  active 
Such  lands,  in  cloudy  weather,  form  an  unnatural  growth, 
such  as  results  in  the  "lodging"  of  grain  crops,  from  the 
deficient  strength  of  the  straw  which  this  growth  produces, 

In  hot  weather,  the  temperature  of  the  lower  soil  is,  of 
course,  much  lower  than  that  of  the  air,  and  lower  than 
that  of  the  water  of  warm  rains.  If  the  soil  is  saturated 
with  water,  the  water  will,  of  course,  be  of  an  even  tem- 
perature with  the  soil  in  which  it  lies,  but  if  this  be  drained 
off,  warm  air  will  enter  from  above,  and  give  its  heat  to 
the  soil,  while  each  rain,  as  it  falls,  will  also  carry  its  heat 
with  it  Furthermore,  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  some- 
times excessively  heated  by  the  summer  sun,  and  the  heat 
thus  contained  is  carried  down  to  the  lower  soil  by  the 
descending  water  of  rains,  which  thus  cool  the  surface  and 
warm  the  subsoil,  both  beneficial 

Mr.  Josiah  Parkes,  one  of  the  leading  draining  engi- 
aeers  of  England,  has  made  some  experiments  to  test  the 
extent  to  which  draining  affects  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  The  results  of  his  observations  are  thus  stated  by 
Gisborne:  "Mr.  Parkes  gives  the  temperature  on  a 
"  Lancashire  flat  moss,  but  they  only  commence  7  inches 
"  below  the  surface,  and  do  not  extend  to  mid-summer. 
"  At  that  period  of  the  year  the  temperature,  at  7  inches, 
"  never  exceeded  66°,  and  was  generally  from  10°  to  15° 
"  below  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  shade,  at  4  feet 
"  above  the  earth.  Mr.  Parkes'  experiments  were  made 
"  simultaneously,  on  a  drained,  and  on  an  undrained  por- 
u  tion  of  the  moss ;  and  the  result  was,  that,  on  a  mean 
"  of  35  observations,  the  drained  soil  at  7  inches  in  depth 
"  was  10°  warmer  than  the  undrained,  at  the  same  depth. 
"  The  undrained  soil  never  exceeded  47°,  whereas,  after  a 
u  thunder  storm,  the  drained  reached  66°  at  7  inches,  ana 
u  48°  at  31  inches.  Such  were  the  effects,  at  an  early 
"  period  of  the  year,  on  a  black  bog.  They  suggest  some 


HOW    DBATXS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT   THE   SOIL.  37 

"  idea  of  what  they  were,  when,  in  July  or  August,  thunder 
"  rain  at  60°  or  70°  falls  on  a  surface  heated  to  130°,  and 
"  carries  down  with  it,  into  the  greedy  fissures  of  the  earth, 
"  its  augmented  temperature.  These  advantages,  porous 
"  soils  possess  by  nature,  and  retentive  ones  only  acquire 
"  them  by  drainage." 

Drained  land,  being  more  open  to  atmospheric  circula- 
tion, and  having  lost  the  water  which  prevented  the  tem- 
perature of  its  lower  portions  from  being  so  readily 
affected  by  the  temperature  of  the  air  as  it  is  when  dry, 
will  freeze  to  a  greater  depth  in  winter  and  thaw  out  ear- 
lier in  the  spring.  The  deep  freezing  has  the  effect  to 
greatly  pulverize  the  lower  soil,  thus  better  fitting  it  for 
the  support  of  vegetation ;  and  the  earlier  thawing  makes 
it  earlier  ready  for  spring  work. 

Drought. — At  first  thought,  it  is  not  unnatural  to  sup 
pose  that  draining  will  increase  the  ill  effect  of  too  dry 
seasons,  by  removing  water  which  might  keep  the  soil 
moist.  Experience  has  proven,  however,  that  the  result 
is  exactly  the  opposite  of  this.  Lands  which  suffer  most 
from  drought  are  most  benefited  by  draining, — more  in 
their  greater  ability  to  withstand  drought  than  in  any 
other  particular.  This  applies  to  heavy  soils. 

The  reasons  for  this  action  of  draining  become  obvious, 
when  its  effects  on  the  character  of  the  soil  are  examined. 
There  is  always  the  same  amount  of  water  in,  and  about, 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  In  winter  there  is  more  in  the 
soil  than  in  summer,  while  in  summer,  that  which  has 
been  dried  out  of  the  soil  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in  the 
form  of  a  vapor.  It  is  held  in  the  vapory  form  by  heat^ 
which  may  be  regarded  as  braces  to  keep  it  distended. 
When  vapor  comes  in  contact  with  substances  sufficiently 
colder  than  itself,  it  gives  up  its  heat, — thus  losing  it» 
braces, — contracts,  becomes  liquid  water,  and  is  deposited 
as  dew. 


B8  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEAL  PH. 

Many  instrances  of  this  operation  are  familiar  to  all* 
For  instance,  a  cold  pitcher  in  the  summer  robs  the 
vapor  in  the  air  of  its  heat,  and  causes  it  to  be  deposited 
on  its  own  surface, — of  course  the  water  comes  from  the 
atmosphere,  not  through  the  wall  of  the  pitcher ;  if  we 
breathe  on  a  knife  blade,  it  condenses,  in  the  same  manner, 
the  moisture  of  the  breath,  and  becomes  covered  with  a 
film  of  water ;  stone-houses  are  damp  in  summer,  because 
the  inner  surface  of  their  walls,  being  cooler  than  the 
atmosphere,  causes  its  moisture  to  be  deposited  in  the 
manner  described  ;*  nearly  every  night,  in  summer,  the 
cold  earth  receives  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  in  the 
form  of  dew ;  a  single  large  head  of  cabbage,  which  at 
night  is  very  cold,  often  condenses  water  to  the  amount  of 
a  gill  or  more. 

The  same  operation  takes  place  in  the  soil.  "When  the 
air  is  allowed  to  circulate  among  its  lower  and  cooler, 
(because  more  shaded,)  particles,  they  receive  moisture  by 
the  same  process  of  condensation.  Therefore,  when,  by 
the  aid  of  under-drains,  the  lower  soil  becomes  sufficiently 
loose  and  open  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air,  the  deposit  of 
atmospheric  moisture  will  keep  it  supplied  with  water,  at 
a  point  easily  accessible  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

If  we  wish  to  satisfy  ourselves  that  this  is  practically 
correct,  we  have  only  to  prepare  two  boxes  of  finely  ptil 
verized  soil, — one  three  or  four  inches  deep, — and  the  other 
fifteen  or  twenty  inches  deep,  and  place  them  in  the  sun,  at 
midday,  in  summer.  The  thinner  soil  will  soon  be  com- 
pletely dried,  while  the  deeper  one,  though  it  may  have 
been  previously  dried  in  an  oven,  will  soon  accumulate  a 

*  By  leaving  a  space  between  the  wall  and  the  plastering,this  moisture 
Is  prevented  from  being  au  annoyance,  and  if  the  inclosed  space  is  not 
tpen  from  top  to  bottom,  so  as  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air,  but  little 
vapor  will  come  in  contact  with  the  wall,  and  but  an  inconsiderabU 
amount  will  be  deposited. 


HOW    DRAINS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT  THE   BOIL.  39 

large  amount  of  water  on  those  particles  which,  being 
lower  and  better  sheltered  from  the  sun's  heat  than  the 
particles  of  the  thin  soil,  are  made  cooler. 

We  have  seen  that  even  the  most  retentive  soil, — the 
stiffest  clay, — is  made  porous  by  the  repeated  passage  of 
water  from  the  surface  to  the  level  of  the  drains,  and  that 
the  ability  to  admit  air,  which  plowing  gives  it,  is  main- 
tained for  a  much  longer  time  than  if  it  were  usually  sat- 
urated with  water  which  has  no  other  means  of  escape 
than  by  evaporation  at  the  surface.  The  power  of  dry 
soils  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  may  be  seen  by  an 
examination  of  the  following  table  of  results  obtained  by 
Schuebler,  who  exposed  1,000  grains  of  dried  soil  of  the 
various  kinds  named  to  the  action  of  the  air : 


Amount  of  Water  Absorbed  In  24  Houn\ 


Common  Soil 22  grains. 

Loamy  Cla^ 26  grains. 

Garden  Soil 45  grains. 

Brickmakere' Clay. . . 30  grains. 


The  effect  of  draining  in  overcoming  drought,  by  admit 
ting  atmospheric  vapor  will,  of  course,  be  very  much  in- 
creased if  the  land  be  thoroughly  loosened  by  cultivation, 
and  especially  if  the  surface  be  kept  in  an  open  and  mellow 
condition. 

In  addition  to  the  moisture  received  from  the  air,  as 
above  described,  water  is,  in  a  porous  soil,  drawn  up  from 
the  wetter  subsoil  below ,  by  the  same  attractive  force 
which  acts  to  wet  the  whole  of  a  sponge  of  which  only  the 
lower  part  touches  the  water;  —  as  a  hard,  dry,  compact 
sponge  will  absorb  water  much  less  readily  than  one 
which  is  loose  and  open,  so  the  hard  clods,  into  which  un- 
drained  clay  is  dried,  drink  up  water  much  less  freely  than 
they  will  do  after  draining  shall  have  made  them  more 
friable. 

The  source  of  this  underground  moisture  is  the  "  watei 
table,"— the  level  of  the  soil  below  the  influence  of  the 


40  DBAINIX'J   FOB  PEOFIT    LSD   HEALTH. 

drains, — and  this  should  be  so  placed  that,  while  its  watei 
will  easily  rise  to  a  point  occupied  by  the  feeding  roots  ot 
the  crop,  it  should  yield  as  little  as  possible  for  evapora- 
tion at  the  surface. 

Another  source  of  moisture,  in  summer,  is  the  deposit  of 
devr  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  amount  of  this  ia 
very  difficult  to  determine,  and  accurate  American  experi- 
ments on  the  subject  are  wanting.  Of  course  the  amount 
of  dew  is  greater  here  than  in  England,  where  Dr.  Dalton, 
a  skillful  examiner  of  atmospheric  phenomena,  estimates 
the  annual  deposit  of  dew  to  equal  a  depth  of  five  inches, 
or  about  one-fifth  of  the  rain-fall.  Water  thus  deposited 
on  the  soil  is  absorbed  more  or  less  completely,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  porosity  of  the  ground. 

The  extent  to  which  plants  will  be  affected  by  drought 
depends,  other  things  being  equal,  on  the  depth  to  which 
they  send  their  roots.  If  these  lie  near  the  surface,  they 
will  be  parched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  If  they  strike 
deeply  into  the  damper  subsoil,  the  sun  will  have  less  effect 
on  the  source  from  which  they  obtain  their  moisture. 
Nothing  tends  so  much  to  deep  rooting,  as  the  thorough 
draining  of  the  soil.  If  the  free  water  be  withdrawn  to 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  surface,  plants, — even 
without  the  valuable  aid  of  deep  and  subsoil  plowing, — 
will  send  their  roots  to  great  depths.  Writers  on  this 
subject  cite  many  instances  in  which  the  roots  of  ordinary 
crops  "  not  mere  hairs,  but  strong  fibres,  as  large  as  pack- 
thread," sink  to  the  depth  of  4,  6,  and  in  some  instances 
12  or  14  feet.  Certain  it  is  that,  in  a  healthy,  well  aerated 
soil,  any  of  the  plants  ordinarily  cultivated  in  the  garden 
or  field  will  send  their  roots  far  below  the  parched  surface 
soil ;  but  if  the  subsoil  is  wet,  cold,  and  soggy,  at  the 
time  when  the  young  crop  is  laying  out  its  plan  of  future 
action,  it  will  perforce  accommodate  its  roots  to  the 
limited  space  which  the  comparatively  dry  surface  soU 
affords. 


HOW   DRALNTS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT  THE   SOIL.  41 

It  is  well  known  among  those  who  attend  the  meetings 
of  the  Farmers'  Club  of  the  American  Institute,  in  New 
York,  that  the  farm  of  Professor  Mapes,  near  Newark,  N. 
J.,  which  maintains  its  wonderful  fertility,  year  after  year, 
without  reference  to  wet  or  dry  weather,  has  been  ren- 
dered almost  absolutely  indifferent  to  the  severest  drought, 
by  a  course  of  cultivation  which  has  been  rendered  possi- 
ble only  by  under-draining.  The  lawns  of  the  General 
Park,  which  are  a  marvel  of  freshness,  when  the  lands  about 
the  Park  are  burned  brown,  owe  their  vigor  mainly  to  the 
complete  drainage  of  the  soil.  What  is  true  of  these  thor- 
oughly cultivated  lands,  it  is  practicable  to  attain  on  all 
soils,  which,  from  their  compact  condition,  are  now  almost 
denuded  of  vegetation  in  dry  seasons. 

Porosity  OF  Mellowness. — An  open  and  mellow  condf 
tion  of  the  soil  is  always  favorable  for  the  growth  of 
plants.  They  require  heat,  fresh  air  and  moisture,  to  ena- 
ble them  to  take  up  the  materials  on  which  they  live,  and 
by  which  they  grow.  We  have  seen  that  the  heat  of  re- 
tentive soils  is  almost  directly  proportionate  to  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  their  free  water  is  removed  by  under- 
ground draining,  and  that,  by  reason  of  the  increased 
facility  with  which  air  and  water  circulate  within  them, 
their  heat  is  more  evenly  distributed  among  all  those  parts 
of  the  soil  which  are  occupied  by  roots.  The  word  moisture, 
in  this  connection,  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  wetness, 
and  implies  a  condition  of  freshness  and  dampness, — not 
at  all  of  saturation.  In  a  saturated,  a  soaking-\vet  soil, 
every  space  between  the  particles  is  filled  with  water  to 
the  entire  exclusion  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  such  a  soil 
only  aquatic  plants  will  grow.  In  a  dry  soil,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  the  earth  is  contracted  into  clods  and  baked, 
almost  as  in  an  oven, — one  of  the  most  important  condi- 
tions for  growth  being  wanting, — nothing  can  thrive,  save 
those  plants  which  ask  of  the  earth  only  an  anchoring 
place,  and  seek  their  nourjehmep*  frc  m  t'  o  air.  Both  ail 


42  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

plants  and  water  plants  have  their  wisely  assigned  placet 
in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  nature  provides  them  with 
ample  space  for  growth.  Agriculture,  however,  is  directed 
to  the  production  of  a  class  of  plants  very  different  from 
either  of  these, — to  those  which  can  grow  to  their  great- 
est perfection  only  in  a  soil  combining,  not  one  or  two 
only,  but  all  three  of  the  conditions  named  above.  While 
they  require  heat,  they  cannot  dispense  with  the  moisture 
which  too  great  heat  removes ;  while  they  require  mois- 
ture, they  cannot  abide  the  entire  exclusion  of  air,  nor  the 
dissipation  of  heat  which  too  much  water  causes.  The 
interior  part  of  the  pellets  of  a  well  pulverized  soil  should 
contain  all  the  water  that  they  can  hold  by  their  own  ab- 
sorptive power,  just  as  the  finer  walls  of  a  damp  sponge 
hold  it ;  while  the  spaces  between  these  pellets,  like  the 
pores  of  the  sponge,  should  be  filled  with  air. 

In  such  a  soil,  roots  can  extend  in  any  direction,  and  to 
considerable  depth,  without  being  parched  with  thirst,  or 
drowned  in  stagnant  water,  and,  other  things  being  equal, 
plants  will  grow  to  their  greatest  possible  size,  and  all 
their  tissues  will  be  of  the  best  possible  texture.  On 
rich  land,  wliich  is  maintained  in  this  condition  of  porosity 
and  mellowness,  agriculture  will  produce  its  best  results, 
and  will  encounter  the  fewest  possible  chances  of  failure. 
Of  course,  there  are  not  many  such  soils  to  be  found,  and 
such  absolute  balance  between  warmth  and  moisture  in  the 
soil  cannot  be  maintained  at  all  times,  and  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, but  the  more  nearly  it  is  maintained,  the  more 
nearly  perfect  will  be  the  results  of  cultivation. 

Chemical  Action  in  the  Soil,— Plants  receive  certain  01 
their  constituents  from  the  soil,  through  their  roots.  The 
raw  materials  from  which  these  constituents  are  obtained 
are  the  minerals  of  the  soil,  the  manures  which  are  artifi- 
cially applied,  water,  and  certain  substances  which  are 
taken  from  the  air  by  the  absorptive  action  of  the  soil, 


HOW   DRAINS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT  THE  SOU.  43 

or  are  brought  to  it  by  rains,  or  by  water  flowing  over  the 
surface  from  other  land. 

The  mineral  matters,  which  constitute  the  ashes  of 
plants,  when  burned,  are  not  mere  accidental  impurities 
which  happen  to  be  carried  into  their  roots  in  solution  in 
the  water  which  supplies  the  sap,  although  they  vary  in 
character  and  proportion  with  each  change  in  the  min- 
eral composition  of  the  soil.  It  is  proven  by  chemical 
analysis,  that  the  composition  of  the  ashes,  not  only  of 
different  species  of  plants,  but  of  different  parts  of  the 
same  plant,  have  distinctive  characters, — some  being  rich 
in  phosphates,  and  others  in  silex ;  some  in  potash,  and  oth- 
ers in  lime, — and  that  these  characters  are  in  a  measure 
the  same,  in  the  same  plants  or  parts  of  plants,  without 
especial  reference  to  the  soil  on  which  they  grow.  The 
minerals  which  form  the  ashes  of  plants,  constitute  but  a 
very  small  part  of  the  soil,  and  they  are  very  sparsely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  mass ;  existing  in  the  interior  of 
its  particles,  as  well  as  upon  their  surfaces.  As  roots  can- 
not penetrate  to  the  interior  of  pebbles  and  compact  par 
tides  of  earth,  in  search  of  the  food  which  they  require, 
but  can  only  take  that  which  is  exposed  on  their  surfaces, 
and,  as  the  oxydizing  effect  of  atmospheric  air  is  useful  in 
preparing  the  crude  minerals  for  assimilation,  as  well  as  in 
decomposing  the  particles  in  which  they  are  bound  up, — a 
process  which  is  allied  to  the  rusting  of  metals, — the  more 
freely  atmospheric  air  is  allowed,  or  induced,  to  circulate 
among  the  inner  portions  of  the  soil,  the  more  readily  are 
its  fertilizing  parts  made  available  for  the  use  of  roots. 
By  no  other  process,  is  air  made  to  enter  so  deeply,  nor  to 
circulate  so  readily  in  the  soil,  as  by  under-draining,  and 
the  deep  cultivation  which  under-draining  facilitates. 

Of  the  manures  which  are  applied  to  the  land,  those  of 
a  mineral  character  are  affected  by  draining,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  minerals  which  are  native  to  the  soil 


44  DBAIN1NG   FOB  PBOFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

while  organic,  or  animal  and  vegetable,  manures,  (espe- 
cially when  applied,  as  is  usual,  in  an  incompletely  fer- 
mented condition,)  absolutely  require  fresh  supplies  of 
atmospheric  air,  to  continue  the  decomposition  which 
alone  can  prepare  them  for  their  proper  effect  on  vegeta- 
tion. 

If  kept  saturated  with  water,  so  that  the  air  is  excluded, 
animal  manures  lie  nearly  inert,  and  vegetable  matters 
decompose  but  incompletely, — yielding  acids  which  are  in- 
jurious to  vegetation,  and  which  would  not  be  formed  in 
the  presence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  An  instance  is 
cited  by  H.  Wauer  where  sheep  dung  was  preserved,  for 
five  years,  by  excessive  moisture,  which  kept  it  from  the 
air.  If  the  soil  be  saturated  with  water  in  the  spring,  and, 
in  summer,  (by  the  compacting  of  its  surface,  which  is 
caused  by  evaporation,)  be  closed  against  the  entrance  of 
air,  manures  will  be  but  slowly  decomposed,  and  will  act 
but  imperfectly  on  the  crop, — if,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
complete  system  of  drainage  be  adopted,  manures,  (and 
the  roots  winch  have  been  left  in  the  ground  by  the  pre- 
vious crop,)  will  be  readily  decomposed,  and  will  exercise 
their  full  influence  on  the  soil,  and  on  the  plants  growing 
in  it. 

Again,  manures  are  more  or  less  effective,  in  proportion 
as  they  are  more  or  less  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil 
In  an  undrained,  retentive  soil,  it  is  not  often  possible  to 
attain  that  perfect  tilth,  which  is  best  suited  for  a  proper 
admixture,  and  which  is  easily  given  after  thorough 
draining. 

The  soil  must  be  regarded  as  the  laboratory  in  whicl* 
nature,  during  the  season  of  growth,  is  carrying  on  those 
hidden,  but  indispensable  chemical  separations,  combina- 
tions, and  re-combinations,  by  which  the  earth  is  made  to 
bear  its  fruits,  and  to  sustain  its  myriad  life.  The  chief 
demand  of  this  laboratory  is  for  free  ventilation.  Th« 


HOW   DRAIXS   ACT,   AND   AFFECT  THE   SOIL.  45 

raw  material  for  the  work  is  at  hand, — as  well  in  the  wet 
soil  as  in  the  dry ;  but  the  door  is  sealed,  the  damper  is 
closed,  and  only  a  stray  whiff  of  air  can,  now  and  then, 
gain  entrance, — only  enough  to  commence  an  analysis,  or  a 
combination,  which  is  choked  off  when  half  complete, 
leaving  food  for  sorrel,  but  making  none  for  grass.  We 
must  throw  open  door  and  window,  draw  away  the  water 
in  which  all  is  immersed,  let  in  the  air,  with  its  all  de- 
atroying,  and,  therefore,  all  re-creating  oxygen,  and  leave 
the  forces  of  nature's  beneficent  chemistry  free  play, 
deep  down  in  the  ground.  Then  may  we  hope  for  the 
full  benefit  of  the  fertilizing  matters  which  our  good  soil 
contains,  and  for  the  full  effect  of  the  manures  which  we 
add. 

With  our  land  thoroughly  improved,  as  has  been  de- 
scribed, we  may  carry  on  the  operations  of  farming  with 
as  much  certainty  of  success,  and  with  as  great  immunity 
from  the  ill  effects  of  unfavorable  weather,  as  can  be  ex- 
pected in  any  business,  whose  results  depend  on  such  a 
variety  of  circumstances.  We  shall  have  substituted  cer- 
tainty for  chance,  as  far  as  it  is  in  our  power  to  do  so,  and 
shall  have  made  farming  an  art,  rather  than  a  venture. 


NOTE.— (Third  edition.)  As  indicated  in  the  note  to  the  third  edition 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  I,  the  expression  above — "the  forces  of  nature's 
beneflcient  chemistry — "  should  probably  read — "the  development  of 
bacteria,  nature's  beneficent  agent  of  final  decomposition." 

There  is  reason  to  suppose  that  bacterial  action  is  much  less  ener- 
getic "deep  down  in  the  ground"  than  quite  near  the  surface.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  manurial  matters  to  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  these 
organisms  should  not  be  placed  so  deep  in  the  ground  as  to  be  out  of 
the  tolerably  easy  reach  of  atmospheric  air. 


CHAPTER  HI. 


HOW  TO  GO  TO  WORK  TO  LAY  OUT  A  SYSTEM  OF 
DRAINS. 

How  to  lay  out  tlie  drains;  whwe  to  place  the  outlet; 
where  to  locate  the  main  collecting  lines ;  how  to  arrange 
the  laterals  which  are  to  take  the  water  from  the  soil  and 
deliver  it  at  the  mains ;  how  deep  to  go ;  at  what  inter- 
vals; what  fall  to  give;  and  what  S'zes  of  tile  to  use, — 
these  are  all  questions  of  great  importance  to  one  who  is 
about  to  drain  land. 

On  the  proper  adjustment  of  these  points,  depend  the 
economy  and  effectiveness  of  the  work.  Time  and  attention 
given  to  them,  before  commencing  actual  operations,  will 
prevent  waste  and  avoid  failure.  Any  person  of  ordinary 
intelligence  may  qualify  himself  to  lay  out  under-drama 
and  to  superintend  their  construction, — but  the  knowl- 
edge which  is  required  does  not  come  by  nature.  Those 
who  have  not  the  time  for  the  necessary  study  and  prac- 
tice to  make  a  plan  for  draining  their  land,  will  find  it 
economical  to  employ  an  engineer  for  the  purpose.  In 
this  era  of  railroad  building,  there  is  hardly  a  county  io 
America  which  has  not  a  practical  surveyor,  who  may 
easily  qualify  himself,  by  a  study  of  the  principles  and 
directions  herein  set  forth,  to  lay  out  an  economical  plan 
for  draining  any  ordinary  agricultural  land,  to  stake  the 
lines,  and  to  determine  the  grade  of  the  drains,  and  the 
Bizes  of  tile  with  which  they  should  be  furnished* 
46 


HOW  TO  LA?    OUT  A  SYSTEM   OF  DRAINS.  47 

Oil  this  subject  Mr.  Gisborne  says :  "  If  we  should  give 
"  a  stimulus  to  amateur  draining,  we  shall  do  a  great  deal 
u  of  harm.  We  wish  we  could  publish  a  list  of  the  moneys 
w  which  have  been  squandered  in  the  last  40  years  in  amateur 
'  draining,  either  ineffectually  or  with  very  imperfect  effi- 
**  ciency.  Our  own  name  would  be  inscribed  in  the  list  for  a 
"  very  respectable  sum.  Every  thoughtless  squire  supposes 
"  that,  with  the  aid  of  his  ignorant  bailiff,  he  can  effect  a  per- 
"  feet  drainage  of  his  estate ;  but  there  is  a  worse  man  behind 
"  the  squire  and  the  bailiff, — the  draining  conjuror.  *  * 
u  *  *  *  *  These  fellows  never  go  direct  about  their 
*'  work.  If  they  attack  a  spring,  they  try  to  circumvent 
"  it  by  some  circuitous  route.  They  never  can  learn  that 
"  nature  shows  you  the  weakest  point,  and  that  you  should 
"  assist  her, — that  hit  him  straight  in  the  eye  is  as  good  a 
"  maxim  in  draining  as  in  pugilism.  ****** 
"  If  you  wish  to  drain,  we  recommend  you  to  take  advice. 
"  We  have  disposed  of  the  quack,  but  there  is  a  faculty, 
"  not  numerous  but  extending,  and  whose  extension  ap- 
"  pears  to  us  to  be  indispensable  to  the  satisfactory 
"  progress  of  improvements  by  draining, — a  faculty  of 
"  draining  engineers.  If  we  wanted  a  profession  for  a  lad 
"  who  showed  any  congenial  talent,  we  would  bring  him 
"  up  to  be  a  draining  engineer."  He  then  proceeds  to 
speak  of  his  own  experience  in  the  matter,  and  shows  that, 
after  more  than  thirty  years  of  intelligent  practice,  he 
employed  Mr.  Josiah  Parkes  to  lay  out  and  superintend 
his  work,  and  thus  effected  a  saving,  (after  paying  all  pro- 
fessional charges,)  of  fully  twelve  pel  cent,  on  the  cost  of 
the  draining,  which  was,  at  the  same  time,  better  executed 
than  any  that  he  had  previously  done. 

It  is  probable  that,  in  nearly  all  amateur  draining,  the 
unnecessary  frequency  of  the  lateral  drains;  the  extrava- 
gant size  of  the  pipes  used ;  and  the  number  of  useless 
angles  which  result  from  an  unskillful  arrangement,  would 
amount  to  an  expense  equal  to  ten  times  the  cost  of  the 


48  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH 

proper  superintendence,  to  say  nothing  of  the  imperfect 
manner  in  which  the  work  is  executed.  A  common  im- 
pression seems  to  prevail,  that  if  a  2-inch  pipe  is  good,  a 
3-inch  pipe  must  be  better,  and  that,  generally,  if  draining 
is  \vorth  doing  at  all,  it  is  worth  overdoing;  while 
the  great  importance  of  having  perfectly  fitting  connec- 
tions is  not  readily  perceived.  The  general  result  is,  that 
most  of  the  tile-draining  in  this  country  has  been  too  expen- 
sive for  economy,  and  too  careless  for  lasting  efficiency. 

It  is  proposed  to  give,  in  this  chapter,  as  complete  a 
description  of  the  preliminary  engineering  of  draining  aa 
can  be  concentrated  within  a  few  pages,  and  a  hope  is  en- 
tertained, that  it  will,  at  least,  convey  an  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  giving  a  full  measure  of  thought  and  inge- 
nuity to  the  maturing  of  the  plan,  before  the  execution  of 
the  work  is  commenced.  "Farming  upon  paper"  has 
never  been  held  in  high  repute,  but  draining  upon  paper 
is  less  a  subject  for  objection.  With  a  good  map  of  the 
farm,  showing  the  comparative  levels  of  outlet,  hill,  dale, 
and  plain,  and  the  sizes  and  boundaries  of  the  different 
inclosures,  a  profitable  winter  may  be  passed, — with  pen- 
cil and  rubber, — in  deciding  on  a  plan  which  will  do  the 
required  work  with  the  least  possible  length  of  drain,  and 
which  will  require  the  least  possible  extra  deep  cutting ; 
and  in  so  arranging  the  main  drains  as  to  require  the 
smallest  possible  amount  of  the  larger  and  more  costly 
pipes ;  or,  if  only  a  part  of  the  farm  is  to  be  drained  dur- 
ing the  coming  season,  in  so  arranging  the  work  that  it  will 
dovetail  nicely  with  future  operations.  A  mistake  in  actual 
work  is  costly,  and,  (being  buried  under  the  ground,)  is 
not  easily  detected,  while  errors  in  drawing  upon  paper 
are  always  obvious,  and  are  remedied  without  cost. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  various  processes 
connected  with  the  laying  out  of  a  system  of  drainage, 
the  mode  of  operating  on  a  field  of  ten  acres  will  be  d» 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT   A   SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS.  49 

tailed,  in  connection  with  a  series  of  diagrams  showing 
the  progress  of  the  work. 

A  Map  Of  the  Land  is  first  made,  from  a  careful  sur- 
vey. This  should  be  plotted  to  a  scale  of  50  or  100  feet 
to  the  iuch,*  and  should  exhibit  the  location  of  obsta- 
cles which  may  interfere  with  the  regularity  of  tLo 
drains, — such  as  large  trees,  rocks,  etc.,  and  the  existing 
swamps,  water  courses,  springs,  and  open  drains.  (Fig.  4.) 

The  next  stop  is  to  locate  the  contour  lines  of  the  land, 
or  the  lines  of  equal  elevation, — also  called  the  horizontal 
lines, — which  serve  to  show  the  shape  of  the  surface.  To  do 
this,  stake  off  the  field  into  squares  of  50  feet,  by  first  running 
a  base  line  through  the  center  of  the  greatest  length  of  the 
field,  marking  it  with  stakes  at  intervals  of  50  feet,  then  stake 
other  lines,  also  at  intervals  of  50  feet,  perpendicular  to  the 
base  line,  and  then  note  the  position  of  the  stakes  on  the 
maps ;  next,  by  the  aid  of  an  engineer's  level  and  staff,  ascer- 
tain the  height,  (above  an  imaginary  plain  below  the  lowest 
part  of  the  field,)  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  each  stake, 
and  note  this  elevation  at  its  proper  point  on  the  map.  This 
gives  a  plot  like  Fig.  5.  The  best  instrument  with  which  to 
take  these  levels,  is  the  ordinary  telescope-level  used  by  rail- 
road engineers,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  which  has  a  telescope  with 
cross  hairs  intersecting  each  other  in  the  center  of  the  line 
of  sight,  and  a  "  bubble  "  placed  exactly  parallel  to  this 
.ine.  The  instrument,  fixed  on  a  tripod,  and  so  adjusted 
that  it  will  turn  to  any  point  of  the  compass  without  dis- 
turbing the  position  of  the  bubble,  will,  (as  will  its  "  line  of 
sight,")  revolve  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  plane.  It  is  so 
placed  as  to  command  a  view  of  a  considerable  stretch  of 
the  field,  and  its  height  above  the  imaginary  plane  is 
measured,  an  attendant  places  next  to  one  of  the  stakes 
a  levelling  rod,  (Fig.  7,)  which  is  divided  into  feet  and 

*  The  maps  in  this  book  are,  for  convenience,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  161 
feet  to  the  iuch. 
8 


50 


DRAINING   FOK   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 


•*^%^\     ?\  \  \  \  \  \\  \\'  \\\\\\""  --•"  -^ -",_-- "  - 

',^\         '&& 


Fig.  4. — MAP  OF  LANT>,  WITH  SWAMPS,  ROCKS,  SPRINGS,  AND  TREES. 
INTENDED  TO  REPRESENT  A  FIELD  OF  TEN  ACRES  BEFORE 
DRAINING. 


HOW   TO   LAY    OUT   A   SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS.  51 


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Fig.  5. — MAP  WITH  50-FOOT  SQUARES,  AND  CONTOUR  LINES. 


52  DBAmCfG   FOB   PROFIT   AXD    HEALTH. 

fractions  of  a  foot,  and  is  furnished  with  a  movable  tar* 
get,  so  painted  that  its  center  point  may  be  plainly  seen. 
The  attendant  raises  and  lowers  the  target,  until  it  comes 
exactly  in  the  line  of  sight ;  its  height  on  the  rod  de- 
notes the  height  of  the  instrument  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  at  that  stake,  and,  as  the  height  of  the  instrument 


Fig.  6. — LEVELLING  INSTRUMENT.* 

above  the  imaginary  plane  has  been  reached,  by  subtract- 
ing one  elevation  from  the  other,  the  operator  determines 
the  height  of  the  ground  at  that  stake  above  the  imagi- 
nary plane, — which  is  called  the  "  d<itum." 

The  next  operation  is  to  trace,  on  the  plan,  lines  follow- 
ing the  same  level,  wherever  the  land  is  of  the  proper 
height  for  its  surface  to  meet  them.  For  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  this  operation,  lines  at  intervals  of  elevation  of 

*  The  instrument  from  which  this  cut  was  taken,  (as  also  Fi#.  7,)  wa* 
made  by  Messrs.  Blunt  &  Nichols,  Water-st.,  N.  T,  1867. 


HOW   TO   LAY    OUT   A   SYSTEM    OF   DRAIXS. 


53 


one  foot  are  traced  on  the  plan  in  Fig.  8.  And  these  lines 
show,  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes,  the 
elevation  and  rate  of  inclination  of  all  parts 
of  the  field, — whore  it  is  level  or  nearly  so, 
where  its  rise  is  rapid,  and  where  slight.  As 
the  land  rises  one  foot  from  the  position  of 
one  line  to  the  position  of  the  line  next  above 
it,  where  the  distance  from  one  line  to  the 
next  is  great,  the  land  is  more  nearly  level, 
and  when  it  is  short  the  inclination  is  steeper. 
For  instance,  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
plan,  the  land  is  nearly  level  to  the  2-foot 
line  ;  it  rises  slowly  to  the  center  of  the  field, 
and  to  the  eastern  side  about  one-fourth  of 
the  distance  from  the  southern  boundary, 
while  an  elevation  coming  down  between 
these  two  vallevs,  and  others  skirting  the 
west  side  of  the  former  one  and  the  southern 
side  of  the  latter,  are  indicated  by  the  greater 
nearness  of  the  lines.  The  points  at  which 
the  contour  lines  cross  the  section  lines  are 
found  in  the  following  manner:  On  the 
second  line  from  the  west  side  of  the  field  we 
find  the  elevations  of  the  4th,  5th  and  Gth 
stakes  from  the  southern  boundary  to  be  1.9, 
3.o,  and  5.1.  The  contour  lines,  representing 
points  of  elevation  of  2,  3,  4,  and  5  feet  above 
the  datum  line,  will  cross  the  50-foot  lines  at 
their  intersections,  only  where  these  intersec- 
tions are  marked  in  even  feet.  When  they  are 
marked  with  fractions  of  a  foot,  the  lines  must 
be  made  to  cross  at  points  between  two  in- 
tersections,— nearer  to  one  or  the  other,  ac- 
cording to  their  elevations, — thus  bet  ween  1.9  Fig.  7. — LEVEI/ 
and  3.3,  the  2-foot  and  3-foot  contour  lines 
must  cross.  The  total  difference  of  elevation,  between  the 


DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 


Fig.  8.— MAP  "WITH  CONTOUR  LINKS. 


HOW  TO  LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OP   DRAINS.  55 

two  points  is  3.3 — 1.9=1.4;  J-J  of  the  space  must  be  given 
to  the  even  foot  between  the  lines,  and  the  2-foot  line  should 
be  T'T  of  the  space  above  the  point  1.9; — the  3-foot  line 
will  then  come  T\  below  the  point  3.3.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, the  line  from  3.3  to  5.1  is  divided  into  18  parts,  of 
which  10  go  to  the  space  between  the  4.  and  5.  lines,  7  are 
between  3.3  and  the  4-foot  line,  and  1  between  the  5-foot 
line  and  5.1. 

With  these  maps,  made  from  observations  taken  in  the 
field,  we  are  prepared  to  lay  down,  on  paper,  our  system 
of  drainage,  and  to  mature  a  plan  which  shall  do  the  neces- 
sary work  with  the  least  expenditure  of  labor  and  mate- 
rial. The  more  thoroughly  this  plan  is  considered,  the 
more  economical  and  effective  will  be  the  work.  Having 
already  obtained  the  needed  information,  and  having  it  al. 
before  us,  we  can  determine  exactly  the  location  and  size  of 
each  drain,  and  arrange,  before  hand,  for  a  rapid  and  satis- 
factory execution  of  the  work.  The  only  thing  that  may 
interfere  with  the  perfect  application  of  the  plan,  is  the 
presence  of  masses  of  underground  rock,  within  the  depth 
to  which  the  drains  are  to  be  laid.*  Where  these  are  sup- 
posed to  exist,  soundings  should  be  made,  by  driving  a 
1-inch  pointed  steel  rod  to  the  rock,  or  to  a  depth  of  five 
feet  where  the  rock  falls  away.  By  this  means,  measuring 
the  distance  from  the  soundings  to  the  ranges  of  the 
stakes,  we  can  denote  on  the  map  the  shape  and  depth  of 
sunken  rocks.  The  shaded  spot  on  the  east  side  of  the 
map,  (Fig.  8,)  indicates  a  rock  three  feet  from  the  surface, 
which  will  be  assumed  to  have  been  explored  by  sounding. 

In  most  cases,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  have  contour  lines 
taken  only  at  intervals  of  two  feet,  and,  owing  to  the 
Braallness  of  the  scale  on  which  these  maps  are  engraved, 
and  to  avoid  complication  in  the  finished  plan,  where  so 

*The  slight  deviations  caused  by  carrying  the  drains  around  large 
stones,  which  are  found  in  cutting  the  ditches,  do  not  affect  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  lines 


56  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AXD   HEALTH. 

much  else  must  be  shown,  each  alternate  line  is  omitted. 
Of  course,  where  drains  are  at  once  staked  out  on  the 
land,  by  a  practiced  engineer,  no  contour  lines  are  taken, 
as  by  the  aid  of  the  level  and  rod  for  the  flatter  portions, 
and  by  the  eye  alone  for  the  steeper  slopes,  he  will  be  able 
at  once  to  strike  the  proper  locations  and  directions ;  but 
for  one  of  less  experience,  who  desires  to  thoroughly 
mature  his  plan  before  commencing,  they  are  indispensa- 
ble ;  and  their  introduction  here  will  enable  the  novice  to 
understand,  more  clearly  than  would  otherwise  be  possible, 
the  principles  on  which  the  plan  should  be  made. 


Fig.    9. — THE    CLINOMETER. 

For  preliminary  examinations,  and  for  all  purposes  in 
which  great  accuracy  is  not  required,  the  little  instru- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  9, — the  Clinometer, — is  exceedingly 
simple  and  convenient.  Its  essential  parts  are  a  flat  side, 
or  base,  on  which  it  stands,  and  a  hollow  disk  just  half 
filled  with  some  heavy  liquid.  The  jjlass  face  of  the  disk  is 
surrounded  by  a  graduated  scale  that  marks  the  angle  at 
which  the  surface  of  the  liquid  stands,  with  reference  to 
the  flat  base.  The  line  0. —  — 0.  being  parallel  to  the 
base,  when  the  liquid  stands  on  that  line,  the  flat  side  is 
horizontal;  the  line  90. 90.  being  perpendicular  to 


HOW   TO   LAY    OUT    A    SYSTEM    OP   L  RAINS. 


57 


the  base,  when  the  liquid  stands  on  that  line,  the  flat  side 
is  perpendicular  or  plumb.  In  like  manner,  the  intervening 
angles  are  marked,  and,  by  the  aid  of  the  following  tables, 
the  instrument  indicates  the  rate  of  fall  per  hundred  feet 
of  horizontal  measurement,  and  per  hundred  feet  measured 
upon  the  sloping  line.* 

Table  No.  1  shows  the  rise  of  the  slope  for  100  feet  of 
the  horizontal  measurement.  Example:  If  the  horizontal 
distance  is  100  feet,  and  the  slope  is  at  an  angle  of  10°, 
the  rise  will  be  17^  feet. 

Table  No.  2  shows  the  rise  of  the  slope  for  100  feet  of 
its  own  length.  If  the  sloping  line,  (at  an  angle  of  15°,) 
is  100  feet  long,  it  rises  25.882  feet. 


TABLE  No.  1. 

TABLE  No.  2. 

DEO. 

FEET. 

DEG. 

FEKT. 

DEO. 

FEET.      |  DEG. 

FEET. 

5 

8.749 

50 

119.175 

5 

8.716 

50 

76.604 

10 

17.633 

55 

142.815 

10 

17.365 

55 

81.915 

15 

26.795 

60 

173.205 

15 

25.882 

60 

86.602 

20 

36.397 

65 

214.451 

20 

34.202 

65 

90.631 

25 

46,631 

70 

274.748 

25 

42.262 

70 

93.9(19 

30 

57.735 

75 

373.205 

30 

50.  — 

75 

96.593 

35 

70.021 

80 

567.128 

35 

57.358 

80 

98.481 

40 

83.910 

85 

1143.01 

40 

64.279 

85 

99.619 

45 

100.  — 

45 

70.711 

With  the  maps  before  him,  showing  the  surface  features 
of  the  field,  and  the  position  of  the  under-ground  rock, 
the  drainer  will  have  to  consider  the  following  points : 

1.  Where,   and   at   what    depth,  shall    the   outlet   be 
placed  ? 

2.  What  shall  be  the  location,  the  length  and  the  depth 
of  the  main  drain  ? 

3.  What  subsidiary  mains, — or  collecting  drains, — shall 
Connect  the  minor  valleys  with  the  main  ? 

4.  What  may  best  be  done  to  collect  the  water  of  large 
springs  and  carry  it  away  ? 

5.  What  provision  is  necessary  to  collect  the  water 
that   flows   over   the   surface   of   out-cropping  rock,   or 


*  The  form  of  this  instrument  has  been  considerably  improved,  and  its  effl 
ciency  increased.— (%d  edition.) 

3* 


58  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

along    springy    lines    on    side    hills    or    under    banks' 

6.  What  should  be  the  depth,  the  distance  apart,  the 
direction,  and  the  rate  of  fall,of  the  lateral  drains? 

7.  What  kind  and  sizes  of  tile  should  be  used  to  form 
the  conduits  ? 

8.  What  provision  should  be  made  to  prevent  the  ob- 
struction of  the  drains,  by  an  accumulation  of  silt  or  sand, 
which  may  enter  the  tiles  immediately  after  they  are  laid, 
and  before  the  earth  becomes  compacted  about  them ;  and 
from  the  entrance  of  vermin  ? 

1.  The  outlet  should  be  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  boun- 
dary, unless,  (for  some  especial  reason   which  does  not 
exist  in  the  case  under  consideration,  nor  in  any  usual 
case,)  it  is  necessary  to  seek  some  othor  than  the  natural 
outfall ;  and  it  should  be  deep  enough  to  take  the  water  of 
the  main  drain,  and  laid  on  a  sufficient  inclination  for  a  free 
flow  of  the  water.     It  should,  where  sufficient  fall  can  be 
obtained  without  too  great  cost,  deliver  this  water  over  a 
step  of  at  least  a  few  inches  in  height,  so  that  the  action  of 
the  drain  may  be  seen,  and  so  that  it  may  not  be  liable  to 
be  clogged  by  the  accumulation  of  silt,  (or  mud,)  in  the 
open  ditch  into  which  it  flows. 

2.  The  main  drain  should,  usually,  be  run  as  nearly  in 
the  lowest  part  of  the  principal  valley  as  is  consistent  with 
tolerable  slraightness.     It  is  better  to  cut  across  the  point 
of  a  hill,  to  the  extent  of  increasing  the  depth  for  a  few 
rods,  than  to  go  a  long  distance  out  of  the  direct  course 
to   keep    in    the   valley,   both   because   of  the   cost    of 
the  large  tile  used  in  the  main,  and  of  the  loss  of  fall 
occasioned  by  the  lengthening  of  the  line.  The  main  should 
be  continued  from  the  outlet  to  the  point  at  which  it  is 
most  convenient  to  collect  the  more  remote  sub-mains, 
which  bring  together  the  water  of  several  sets  of  laterals. 
As  is  the  case  in  the  tract  under  consideration,  the  depth 
of  the  main  is  often  restricted,  in  nearly  level  land,  to- 
ward the  upper  end  of  the  flat  which  lies  next  to  the  out 


HOW    TO   LAY    OUT   A   SYSTEM    OP   DRAINS. 


let,  by  the  necessity  for  a  fall  and  the  difficulty  which  often 
exists  in  securing  a  sufficiently  low  outlet.  In  such  case, 
the  only  rule  is  to  make  it  as  deep  as  possible.  When  the 
fall  is  sufficient,  it  should  be  placed  at  such  depth  as  will 
allow  the  laterals  and  sub-mains  which  discharge  into  it 
to  enter  at  its  top,  and  discharge  above  the  level  of  the 
water  which  flows  through  it. 

3.  Subsidiary  mains,  or  sub-mains,  connecting  with  the 
main  drains,  should  be  run  up  the  minor  valleys  of  the 

land,  skirting  the 
bases  of  the  hills. 
Where  the  valley  is 
aflat  one,  with  rising 
ground  at  each  side, 
there  should  be  a 
sub-main,  to  receive 
the  laterals  from 
each  hill  side.  As  a 
general  rule,  it  may 
be  stated,  that  the 
collecting  drain  at 
the  foot  of  a  slope 
should  be  placed  on 
the  line  which  is  first 
reached  by  the  wa- 
ter flowing  directly 
down  over  its  surface,  before  it  commences  its  lateral 
movement  down  the  valley ;  and  it  should,  if  possible,  be 
so  arranged  that  it  shall  have  a  uniform  descent  for  its 
whole  distance.  The  proper  arrangement  of  these  col- 
lecting drains  requires  more  skill  and  experience  than 
any  other  branch  of  the  work,  for  on  their  disposition 
depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the  economy  and  success  of 
the  undertaking. 

4.  Where  springs  exist,  there  should  be  some  provision 
made  for  collecting  their  water  in  pits  filled  with  loose 


Fig.  10. — STONE    PIT    TO    CONNECT   SPRING 
WITH    DKAIN. 


60 


DRAIXIXG   FOR    PROFIT    AXD    HEALTH. 


stone,  gravel,  brush  or  other  rubbish,  or  furnished  with 

several  lengths  of  tile  set  on  end,  one  above  the  other,  or 

with  a  barrel  or  other  vessel ;  and  a  line  of  tile  of  proper 

size  should  be  run  directly 

to    a    main,   or    sub-main 

drain.       The   manner   of 

doing  this  by  means  of  a 

pit    tilled    with   stone   is 

shown    in   Fig.   10.     The 

collection  of  spring  water 

in  a  vertical  tile  basin  is 

shown  in  Fig.  11. 

5.  Where   a   ledge   of 
shelving  rock,  of  consider- 
able size,  occurs  on  land 
to  be  drained,  it  is  best  to 
make  some  provision  for 
collecting,  at  its  base,  the 
water  flowing  over  its  sur- 
face, and  taking  it  at  once 
into  the  drains,  so  that  it 

may  not  make  the  land  Fig.  11.— STONE  AND  TILE  BASIN  FOB 
near  it  unduly  wet.  To 

effect  this,  a  ditch  should  be  dtisj  along  the  base  of  the  rock, 
and  quite  down  to  it,  considerably  deeper  than  the  level  of 
the  proposed  drainage  ;  and  this  should  be  filled  with  small 
stones  to  that  level,  with  aline  of  tile  laid  on  top  of  the 
stones,  a  uniform  bottom  for  the  tile  to  rest  upon  being 
formed  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel.  The  tile  and  stone  should 
then  be  covered  with  inverted  sods,  with  wood  shavings, 
or  with  other  suitable  material,  which  will  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  earth,  (from  the  covering  of  the  drain,)  to  choke 
them.  The  water,  following  down  the  surface  of  the  rock, 
will  rise  through  the  stone  work  and,  entering  the  tile,  will 
flow  off.  This  method  may  be  used  for  springy  hill  sides. 

6.  The  points  previously  considered  relate  only  to  the 


HOW  TO   LAY    OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS.  61 

collection  of  unusual  quantities  of  water,  (trom  springs 
and  from  rock  surfaces,)  and  to  the  removal  from  the  land 
of  what  is  thus  collected,  and  of  that  which  flows  from 
the  minor  or  lateral  drains. 

The  lateral  drains  themselves  constitute  the  real  drain- 
age of  the  field,  for,  although  main  lines  take  water  from 
the  land  on  each  side,  their  action  in  this  regard  is  not 
usually  considered,  in  determining  either  their  depth  or 
their  location,  and  they  play  an  exceedingly  small  part  in 
the  more  simple  form  of  drainage, — that  in  which  a  large 
tract  of  land, of  practically  uniform  slope,is  drained  by  par- 
allel lines  of  equal  length,  all  discharging  into  a  single 
main,  running  across  the  foot  of  the  field.  The  land  would 
be  equally  well  drained,  if  the  parallel  lines  were  continued 
to  an  open  ditch  beyond  its  boundary, — the  main  tile  drain 
is  only  adopted  for  greater  convenience  and  security.  It 
will  simplify  the  question  if,  in  treating  the  theory  of  lat- 
eral drains,  it  be  assumed  that  our  field  is  of  this  uniform 
inclination,  and  admits  of  the  use  of  long  lines  of  pai-allel 
drains.  In  fact,  it  is  best  in  practice  to  approximate  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  this  arrangement,  because  deviations 
from  it,  though  always  necessary  in  broken  land,  are 
always  more  expensive,  and  present  more  complicated 
engineering  problems.  If  all  the  land  to  be  drained  had 
a  uniform  fall,  in  a  single  direction,  there  would  be  but 
little  need  of  engineering  skill,  beyond  that  which  is  re- 
quired to  establish  the  depth,  fall,  and  distance  apart,  at 
which  the  drains  should  be  laid.  It  is  chiefly  when  the 
land  pitches  in  different  directions,  and  with  varying  in- 
clination, that  only  a  person  skilled  in  the  arrangement  of 
drains,  or  one  who  will  give  much  consideration  to  the 
subject,  can  effect  the  greatest  economy  by  avoiding  unne- 
cessary complication,  and  secure  the  greatest  efficiency 
by  adjusting  the  drains  to  the  requirements  of  the  land. 

Assuming  the  land  to  have  an  unbroken  inclination,  so 
as  to  require  only  parallel  drams,  it  becomes  important  to 


62  DRAINING   FOE   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

know  how  these  parallel  drains,  (corresponding  to   tn« 
lateral  drains  of  an  irregular  system,)  should  be  made. 

The  history  of  land  draining  is  a  history  of  the  gradual 
progress  of  an  improvement,  from  the  accomplishment  of 
a  single  purpose,  to  the  accomplishment  of  several  pur- 
poses, and  most  of  the  instruction  which  modern  agri- 
cultural writers  have  given  concerning  it,  has  shown  too 
great  dependence  upon  the  teachings  of  their  predecessors, 
who  considered  well  the  single  ohject  which  they  sought 
to  attain,  but  who  had  no  conception  that  draining  was  to 
be  so  generally  valuable  as  it  has  become.  The  effort,  (proba- 
bly an  unconscious  one,)  to  make  the  theories  of  modern 
thorough-draining  conform  to  those  advanced  by  the  early 
practitioners,  seems  to  have  diverted  attention  from  some 
more  recently  developed  principles,  which  are  of  much 
importance.  For  example,  about  a  hundred  years  ago, 
Joseph  Elkington,  of  Warwickshire,  discovered  that,  where 
Jand  is  made  too  wet  by  under-ground  springs,  a  skillful 
tapping  of  these, — drawing  off  their  water  through  suita- 
ble conduits, — would  greatly  relieve  the  land,  and  for 
many  years  the  Elkington  System  of  drainage,  beihg  a 
great  improvement  on  every  thing  theretofore  practiced, 
naturally  occupied  the  attention  of  the  agricultural  world, 
and  the  Board  of  Agriculture  appointed  a  Mr.  Johnstone 
to  study  the  process,  and  write  a  treatise  on  the  subject. 

Catch-water  drains,  made  so  as  to  intercept  a  flow  of 
surface  water,  have  been  in  use  from  immemorial  time,  and 
are  described  by  the  earliest  writers.  Before  the  advent 
of  the  Draining  Tile,  covered  drains  were  furnished  with 
stones,  boards,  brush,  weeds,  and  various  other  rubbish 
and  their  good  effect,  very  properly,  claimed  the  attention 
of  all  improvers  of  wet  land.  When  the  tile  first  made 
its  appearance  hi  general  practice,  it  was  of  what  is  called 
the  "  horse-shoe  "  form,  and, — imperfect  though  it  was, — 
it  was  better  than  anything  that  had  preceded  it,  and  was 
received  with  high  approval,  wherever  it  became  known 


HOW  TO  LAY   OUT  A    SYSTEM   OF   DBAIN8.  63 

The  general  use  of  all  these  materials  for  making  drains 
was  confined  to  a  system  of  partial  drainage,  until  the 
publication  of  a  pamphlet,  in  1833,  by  Mr.  Smith,  of  Dean- 
ston,  who  advocated  the  drainage  of  the  whole  field,  with- 
out reference  to  springs.  From  this  plan,  but  with  impor- 
tant modifications  in  matters  of  detail,  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  tile  draining  has  grown.  Many  able  men  have 
aided  its  progress,  and  have  helped  to  disseminate  a 
knowledge  of  its  processes  and  its  effects,  yet  there  are 
few  books  on  draining,  even  the  most  modern  ones,  which 
do  not  devote  much  attention  to  Elkington's  discovery ; 
to  the  various  sorts  of  stone  and  brush  drains ;  and  to  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  horse-shoe  tile; — not  treating  them 
as  matters  of  antiquarian  interest,  but  repeating  the  in- 
structions for  their  application,  and  allowing  the  reasoning 
on  which  their  early  use  was  based,to  influence,  often  to  a 
damaging  extent,  their  general  consideration  of  the  mod- 
ern practice  of  tile  draining. 

These  processes  are  all  of  occasional  use,  even  at  this 
day,  but  they  are  based  on  no  fixed  rules,  and  are  so  much 
a  matter  of  traditional  knowledge,  with  all  farmers,  that 
instruction  concerning  them  is  not  needed.  The  kind  of 
draining  which  is  now  under  consideration,  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  complete  removal  of  all  of  the  surplus  water  that 
reaches  the  soil,  from  whatever  source,  and  the  assimila- 
tion of  all  wet  soils  to  a  somewhat  uniform  condition,  as  to 
the  ease  with  which  water  passes  through  them. 

There  are  instances,  as  has  been  shown,  where  a  large 
spring,  overflowing  a  considerable  area,  or  supplying  the 
water  of  an  annoying  brook,  ought  to  be  directly  con- 
nected with  the  under-ground  drainage,  and  its  flow  neatly 
carried  away ;  and,  in  other  cases,  the  surface  flow  over 
large  masses  of  rock  should  be  given  easy  entrance  into 
the  tile;  but,  in  all  ordinary  lands,  whether  swamps, 
springy  hill  sides,  heavy  clays,  or  light  soils  lying  on  re- 
tentive subsoil,  all  ground,  in  fact,  which  needs  under 


W  DRAINING  FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

draining  at  all,  should  be  laid  dry  above  the  level  to  which 
it  is  deemed  best  to  place  the  drains ; — not  only  secured 
against  the  wetting  of  springs  and  soakage  water,  but 
rapidly  relieved  of  the  water  of  heavy  rains.  The  water 
table,  in  short,  should  be  lowered  to  the  proper  depth,  and, 
by  permanent  outlets  at  that  depth,  be  prevented  from 
ever  rising,  for  any  considerable  time,  to  a  higher  level. 
This  being  accomplished,  it  is  of  no  consequence  to  know 
whence  the  water  comes,  and  Elkington's  system  need 
have  no  place  in  our  calculations.  As  round  pipes,  with  col- 
lars, are  far  superior  to  the  "  horse-shoe  "  tiles,  and  are 
equally  easy  to  obtain,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  the 
manner  in  which  these  latter  should  be  used, — only  to  say 
that  they  ought  not  to  be  used  at  all. 

The  water  which  falls  upon  the  surface  is  at  once  ab- 
sorbed, settles  through  the  ground,  until  it  reaches  a 
point  where  the  soil  is  completely  saturated,  and  raises  the 
general  water  level.  When  this  level  reaches  the  floor  of 
the  drains,  the  water  enters  at  the  joints  and  is  carried 
off.  That  which  passes  down  through  the  land  lying 
between  the  drains,  bears  down  upon  that  which  has  al- 
ready accumulated  in  the  soil,  and  forces  it  to  seek  an  out- 
let by  rising  into  the  drains.*  For  example,  if  a  barrel, 
standing  on  end,  be  filled  with  earth  which  is  saturated 
with  water,  and  its  bung  be  removed,  the  water  of  satura- 
tion, (that  is,  all  which  is  not  held  by  attraction  in  the  par 
tides  of  earth,)  will  be  removed  from  so  much  of  the 
mass  as  lies  above  the  bottom  of  the  bung-hole.  If  a 
bucket  of  water  be  now  poured  upon  the  top,  it  will  not  all 
run  diagonally  toward  the  opening ;  it  will  trickle  down  to 
the  level  of  the  water  remaining  in  the  barrel,  and  this  level 
will  rise  and  water  will  run  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  orifice. 
In  this  manner,  the  water,  even  below  the  drainage  level, 

*  Except  from  quite  near  to  the  drain,  It  is  not  probable  that  the 
irater  In  the  soil  runs  laterally  towards  it. 


HOW    TO   LAY    OUT   A    SYSTEM    OP   DRAINS.  65 

is  changed  with  each  addition  at  the  surface.  In  a  barrel 
filled  with  coarse  pebbles,  the  water  of  saturation  would 
maintain  a  nearly  level  surface ;  if  the  material  were  more 
compact  and  retentive,  a  true  level  would  be  attained  only 
after  a  considerable  time.  Toward  the  end  of  the  flow, 
the  water  would  stand  highest  at  the  points  furthest  dis- 
tant from  the  outlet.  So,  in  the  land,  after  a  drenching 
rain,  the  water  is  first  removed  to  the  full  depth,  near  the 
line  of  the  drain,  and  that  midway  between  two  drains 
settles  much  more  slowly,  meeting  more  resistance  from 
below,  and,  for  a  long  time,  will  remain  some  inches 
higher  than  the  floor  of  the  drain.  The  usual  condition 
of  the  soil,  (except  in  very  dry  weather,)  would  be  some- 
what as  represented  in  the  accompanying  cut,  (Fig.  12.) 


Fjir.  12. — LINE   OF   SATURATION  BETWEEN   BRAINS. 

Y  Tare  the  drains.  The  currtrl  line  b  is  the  line  of  saturation,  which  has  de- 
sceniled  fmm  a.  and  is  approaching  c. 

To  provide  for  this  deviation  of  the  line  of  saturation, 
in  practice,  drains  are  placed  deeper  than  would  be  neces- 
sary if  the  water  sank  at  once  to  the  level  of  the  drain 
floor,  the  depth  of  the  drains  being  increased  with  the  in- 
creasing distance  between  them. 

Theoretically,  every  drop  of  water  which  falls  on  a  field 
should  sink  straight  down  to  the  level  of  the  drains,  and 
force  a  drop  of  water  below  that  level  to  rise  into  the  drain 
and  flow  oflf.  How  exactly  this  is  true  in  nature  cannot 
be  known,  and  is  not  material.  Drains  made  in  pursuance 
of  this  theory  will  be  effective  for  any  actual  condition. 


66  DBAINING  FOE   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

The  depth  to  which  the  water  table  should  be  with- 
drawn depends,  not  at  all  on  the  character  of  the  soil, 
but  on  the  requirements  of  the  crops  which  are  to  be 
grown  upon  it,  and  these  requirements  are  the  same  in  all 
soils, — consequently  the  depth  should  be  the  same  in  all. 

What,  then,  shall  that  depth  be  ?  The  usual  practice 
of  the  most  experienced  drainers  seems  to  have  fixed  four 
feet  as  about  the  proper  depth,  and  the  arguments  against 
anything  less  than  this,  as  well  as  some  reasons  for  sup 
posing  that  to  be  sufficient,  are  so  clearly  stated  by  Mr. 
Gisborne  that  it  has  been  deemed  best  to  quote  his  own 
words  on  the  subject : 

"  Take  a  flower-pot  a  foot  deep,  filled  with  dry  soil. 
*  Place  it  in  a  saucer  containing  three  inches  of  water. 
"  The  first  effect  will  be,  that  the  water  will  rise  through 
"  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot  till  the  water  which 
"  fills  the  interstices  between  the  soil  is  on  a  level  with  the 
"  water  in  the  saucer.  This  effect  is  by  gravity.  The 
"  upper  surtace  of  this  water  is  our  water-table.  From  it 

water  will  ascend  by  attraction  through  the  whole 
"  body  of  soil  till  moisture  is  apparent  at  the  surface.  Put 
"  in  your  soil  at  60°,  a  reasonable  summer  heat  for  nine 
*'  inches  in  depth,  your  water  at  47°,  the  seven  inches' 
"  temperature  of  Mr.  Parke's  undrained  bog ;  the  attracted 
"  water  will  ascend  at  47°,  and  will  diligently  occupy 
*'  itself  in  attempting  to  reduce  the  60°  soil  to  its  own 
"  temperature.  Moreover,  no  sooner  will  the  soil  hold 
"  water  of  attraction,  than  evaporation  will  begin  to  carry 
"  it  off,  and  will  produce  the  cold  consequent  thereon. 
"  This  evaporated  water  will  be  replaced  by  water  of  at 
*'  traction  at  47°,  and  this  double  cooling  process  will  go 
u  on  till  all  the  water  in  the  water-table  is  exhausted. 
"  Supply  water  to  the  saucer  as  fast  as  it  disappears,  and 
"  then  the  process  will  be  perpetual.  The  system  of  saucer* 
"  watering  is  reprobated  by  every  intelligent  gardener;  it 
"  ia  found  by  experience  to  chill  vegetation ;  besides  which, 


HOW  TO  LAY   ODT  A   SYSTEM   OP   1  RAINS.  67 

**  scarcely  any  cultivated  plant  can  dij,  its  roots  into  stag- 
"  nant  water  with  impunity.  Exactly  the  process  which 
"  we  have  described  in  the  flower-pot  is  constantly  in 
"  operation  on  an  undrained  retentive  soil ;  the  water- 
"  table  may  not  be  within  nine  inches  of  the  surface,  but 
"  in  very  many  instances  it  is  within  a  foot  or  eighteen 
"  inches,  at  which  level  the  cold  surplus  oozes  into  some 
"  ditch  or  other  superficial  outlet.  At  eighteen  inches, 
"  attraction  will,  on  the  average  of  soils,  act  with  consid- 
"  erable  power.  Here,  then,  you  have  two  obnoxious 
"  principles  at  work,  both  producing  cold,  and  the  one 
"  administering  to  the  other.  The  obvious  remedy  is,  to 
"destroy  their  united  action;  to  break  through  their  line 
*  of  communication.  Remove  your  water  of  attraction 
"  to  such  a  depth  that  evaporation  cannot  act  upon  it,  or 
"but  feebly.  What  is  that  depth  ?  In  ascertaining  this 
"  point  we  are  not  altogether  without  data.  No  doubt 
*'  depth  diminishes  the  power  of  evaporation  rapidly.  Still, 
*'  as  water  taken  from  a  30-inch  drain  is  almost  invariably 
"  two  or  three  degrees  colder  than  water  taken  from  four 
"  feet,  and  as  this  latter  is  generally  one  or  two  degrees 
"  colder  than  water  from  a  contiguous  well  several  feet 
"  below,  we  can  hardly  avoid  drawing  the  conclusion  that 
"  the  cold  of  evaporation  has  considerable  influence  at  30 
"  inches,  a  much-diminished  influence  at  four  feet,  and  little 
"or  none  below  that  depth.  If  the  water-table  is  removed 
"  to  the  depth  of  four  feet,  when  we  have  allowed  18 
"  inches  of  attraction,  we  shall  still  have  30  inches  of  de- 
"  fence  against  evaporation ;  and  we  are  inclined  to  be- 
"  lieve  that  any  prejudicial  combined  action  of  attraction 
"  and  evaporation  is  thereby  well  guarded  against.  The 
'  facts  stated  seem  to  prove  that  less  will  not  suffice. 

"  So  much  on  the  score  of  temperature ;  but  this  is  not 
"  all.  Do  the  roots  of  esculents  wish  to  penetrate  into 
"  the  earth — at  least,  to  the  depth  of  some  feet  ?  We  be- 
"  lieve  that  they  do.  We  are  sure  of  the  brassica  tribe, 


68  DRATSING   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

"  of  grass,  and  clover.  All  our  experience  and  observation 
"  deny  the  doctrine  that  roots  only  ramble  when  they  ar€ 
"  stinted  of  food ;  that  six  inches  well  manured  is  quite 
"  enough,  better  than  more.  Ask  the  Jerseyman ;  h 
"  will  show  you  a  parsnip  as  thick  as  your  thigh,  and  as 
"  long  as  your  leg,  and  will  tell  you  of  the  advantages  of 
"14  feet  of  dry  soil.  You  will  hear  of  parsnips  whose 
"  i  oots  descend  to  unsearchable  depths.  We  will  not 
"  appeal  to  the  Kentucky  carrot,  which  was  drawn  out 
"  by  its  roots  at  the  antipodes ;  but  Mr.  Mechi's,  if  we 
"  remember  right,  was  a  dozen  feet  or  more.  Three  years 
"  ago,  in  a  midland  county,  a  field  of  good  land,  in  good 
"  cultivation,  and  richly  manured,  produced  a  heavy  crop 
"  of  cabbages.  In  November  of  that  year  we  saw  that 
"  field  broken  into  in  several  places,  and  at  the  depth  of 
k  four  feet  the  soil  (a  tenacious  marl,  fully  stiff  enough  for 

*  brick-earth)  was  occupied  by  the  roots  of  cabbage,  not 
sparingly — not  mere  capillae — but  fibres  of  the  size  of 

"  small  pack-thread.     A  farmer  manures  a  field  of  four  or 

"  five  inches  of  free  soil  reposing  on  a  retentive  clay,  and 

"  sows  it  with  wheat.     It  comes  up,  and  between  the  ker- 

"  nel  and  the  manure,  it  looks  well  for  a  time,  but  anon  it 

sickens.     An  Irish  child  looks  well  for  five  or  six  years, 

but  after  that  time  potato-feeding,  and  filth,  and  hard- 

"  ship,  begin  to  tell.     You  ask  what  is  amiss  with  the 

u  wheat,  and  you  are  told  that  when  its  roots  reach  the 

*  clay,  they  are  poisoned.      This  field  is  then  thorough- 
"  drained,  deep,  at  least  four  feet.    It  receives  again  from 
"  the  cultivator  the  previous  treatment ;  the  wheat  comes 
"  up  well,  maintains  throughout  a  healthy  aspect,  and 
"  gives  a  good  return.     What  has  become  of  the  poison  ? 
"  We  have  been  told  that  the  rain  water  filtered  through 
"  the  soil  has  taken  it  into  solution  or  suspension,  and  has 
" carried  it  off  through  the  drains;  and  men  who  assume 
"  to  be  of  authority  put  forward  this  as  one  of  the  ad- 
u  vantages  of  draining.     If  we  believed  it,  we  could  not 


HOW  TO  LAT    OUT  A  SYSTEM   OP  DRA.IXS.  69 

u  advocate  draining.  We  really  should  not  have  the  face 
"  to  tell  our  readers  that  water,  passing  through  soils  con- 
"  taining  elements  prejudicial  to  vegetation,  would  carry 
"  them  off,  but  would  leave  those  which  are  beneficial  be- 
"  hind.  We  cannot  make  our  water  so  discriminating;  the 
"  general  merit  of  water  of  deep  drainage  is,  that  it  con- 
"  tains  very  little.  Its  perfection  would  be  that  it  should 
M  contain  nothing.  We  understand  that  experiments  are 
"  in  progress  which  have  ascertained  that  water,  charged 
"  with  matters  which  are  known  to  stimulate  vegetation, 
"  when  filtered  through  four  feet  of  retentive  soil,  comes 
"  out  pure.  But  to  return  to  our  wheat.  In  the  first  case 
"  it  shrinks  before  the  cold  of  evaporation  and  the  cold  of 
"  water  of  attraction,  and  it  sickens  because  its  feet  are 
"  never  dry  ;  it  suffers  the  usual  maladies  of  cold  and  wet. 
"In  the  second  case,  the  excess  of  cold  by  evaporation 
"  is  withdrawn ;  the  cold  water  of  attraction  is  removed 
"  out  of  its  way ;  the  warm  air  from  the  surface,  rushing 
"  in  to  supply  the  place  of  the  water  which  the  drains  re- 
"  move,  and  the  warm  summer  rains,  bearing  down  with 
"  them  the  temperature  which  they  have  acquired  from 
"  the  upper  soil,  carry  a  genial  heat  to  its  lowest  roots. 
"  Health,  vigorous  growth,  and  early  maturity  are  the 
"  natural  consequences.  ********* 

"The  practice  so  derided  and  maligned  referring  to 
"  deep  draining  has  advanced  with  wonderful  strides. 
"  We  remember  the  days  of  15  inches  ;  then  a  step  to  20;  a 
"  stride  to  30;  and  the  last  (and  probably  final)  jump  to  50,  a 
"  few  inches  under  or  over.  We  have  dabbled  in  them  all, 
:<  generally  belonging  to  the  deep  section  of  the  day.  We 
"  have  used  the  words  '  probably  final,'  because  the  first 
"advances  were  experimental,  and,  though  they  were  jus- 
"  tified  by  the  results  obtained,  no  one  attempted  to  ex« 
"  plain  the  principle  on  which  benefit  was  derived  from 
"  them.  The  principles  on  which  the  now  prevailing 
'depth  is  founded,  and  which  we  believe  to  be  true,  go 


70  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

u  far  to  show  that  we  have  attained  all  the  advaniagei 
"  which  can  be  derived  from  the  removal  of  water  in 
u  ordinary  agriculture.  We  do  not  mean  that,  even  in  the 
u  most  retentive  soil,  water  would  not  get  into  drains 
"which  were  laid  somewhat  deeper;  but  to  this  there 
"  must  be  a  not  very  distant  limit,  because  pure  clay,  lying 
"  below  the  depth  at  which  wet  and  drought  applied  at 
"  surface  would  expand  and  contract  it,  would  certainly 
"  part  with  its  water  very  slowly.  We  find  that,  in  coal 
"  mines  and  in  deep  quarries,  a  stratum  of  clay  of  only  a 
"  few  inches  thick  interposed  between  two  strata  of  per- 
"  vious  stone  will  form  an  effectual  bar  to  the  passage  of 
*'  water ;  whereas,  if  it  lay  within  a  few  feet  of  the  sur- 
"  face,  it  would,  in  a  season  of  heat  and  drought  become 
"  as  pervious  as  a  cullender.  But  when  we  have  got  rid 
"  of  the  cold  arising  from  the  evaporation  of  free  water, 
"  have  given  a  range  of  several  feet  to  the  roots  of  grass 
"  and  cereals,  and  have  enabled  retentive  land  to  filter 
"  through  itself  all  the  rain  which  Mis  upon  its  surface, 
"  we  are  not,  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge,  aware  of 
"  any  advantage  which  would  arise  from  further  lowering 
"  the  surface  of  water  in  agricultural  land.  Smith,  of 
"  Deanston,  first  called  prominent  attention  to  the  fertiliz- 
"  ing  effects  of  rain  filtered  through  land,  and  to  evils  pro- 
"  duced  by  allowing  it  to  flow  off  the  surface.  Any  one 
"  will  see  how  much  more  effectually  this  benefit  will  be 
"  attained,  and  this  evil  avoided,  by  a  4-foot  than  a  2-foot 
u  drainage.  The  latter  can  only  prepare  two  feet  of  soil 
"  for  the  reception  and  retention  of  rain,  which  two  feet, 
"  being  saturated,  will  reject  more,  and  the  surplus  must 
'  ran  off  the  surface,  carrying  whatever  it  can  find  with  it. 
"  A  4-foot  drainage  will  be  constantly  tending  to  have  four 
"  feet  of  soil  ready  for  the  reception  of  rain,  and  it  will 
"  take  much  more  rain  to  saturate  four  feet  than  two, 
"  Moreover,  as  a  gimlet-hole  bored  four  feet  from  the  sur- 
"  face  of  a  barrel  filled  with,  water  will  discharge  much 


HOW  TO  LAY    OUT  A   SYSTEM   OP    DRAINS.  71 

'more  in  a  given  time  than  a  similar  hole  bored  at  the 
u  depth  of  two  feet,  so  will  a  4-foot  drain  discharge  in  a 
"  given  time  much  more  water  than  a  drain  of  two  feet. 
"  One  is  acted  on  by  a  4-foot,  and  the  other  by  a  3-foot 

*  pressure." 

If  any  single  fact  connected  with  tile-drainage  is  estab- 
lished, beyond  all  possible  doubt,  it  is  that  in  the  stiffest 
clay  soils  ever  cultivated,  drains  four  feet  deep  will  act 
effectually ;  the  water  will  find  its  way  to  them,  more  and 
more  freely  and  completely,  as  the  drying  of  successive 
years,  and  the  penetration  and  decay  of  the  roots  of  suc- 
cessive crops,  modify  the  character  of  the  land,  and  they 
will  eventually  be  practically  so  porous  that, — so  far  as 
the  ease  of  drainage  is  concerned, — no  distinction  need,  in 
practice,  be  made  between  them  and  the  less  retentive 
loams.  For  a  few  years,  the  line  of  saturation  between 
the  drains,  as  shown  in  Fig.  11,  may  stand  at  all  seasons 
considerably  above  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  tile,  hut 
it  will  recede  year  by  year,  until  it  will  be  practically 
level,  except  immediately  after  rains. 

Mr.  Josiah  Parkes  recommends  drains  to  be  laid 

"  At  a  minimum  depth  of  four  feel,  designed  with  the  two-fold  object  of 
not  only  freeing  the  active  soil  from  stagnant  and  injurious  water,  but 
of  converting  the  water  falling  on  the  surface  into  an  agent  for  fertiliz- 
ing; no  drainage  being  deemed  efficient  that  did  not  both  remove  the 
water  falling  on  the  surface,  and  '  keep  down  the  subterranean  water  at 
a  depth  exceeding  the  power  of  capillary  attraction  to  elevate  it  near  the 
Surface.' " 

Alderman  Mechi  says : 

"Ask  nineteen  farmers  out  of  twenty,  who  hold  strong  clay  laud,  and 
they  will  tell  you  it  is  of  no  u>e  placing  deep  four- foot  drains  in  such  soil/ 
—tht  water  cannot  get  in;  a  horse's  foot-hole  (without  an  opening 
under  it)  will  hold  water  like  a  basin ;  and  so  on.  Well,  five  minutes 
aftor,  you  tell  the  same  farmers  you  propose  digging  a  cellar,  well 
bricked,  six  or  ei^ht  feet  deep ;  what  is  their  remark  ?  '  Oh  !  it's  of  no 
Ufee  your  making  an  underground  cellar  in  our  soil,  you  can't  keep  tfie 
water  OUT!'  Was  there  ever  such  an  illustration  of  prejudice  as  this? 
What  is  a  drain  pipe  but  a  small  cellar  full  of  air?  Then,  again,  common 
sense  tells  us,  you  can't  keep  a  light  fluid  under  a  heavy  one.  You  might 
•a  well  try  to  keep  a  cork  under  water,  as  to  try  and  keep  air  nudef 


TS»  DRAINING   FOE   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

water.  « Oh  I  but  then  our  soil  is  n't  porous.'  If  not,  how  can  it  hold 
water  so  readily  ?  I  am  led  to  these  observations  by  the  strong  contro- 
versy I  am  having  with  some  Essex  folks,  who  protest  that  I  am  mad,  or 
foolish,  for  placing  1-inch  pipes,  at  fonr-foot  depth,  in  strong  clays.  II 
is  in  vain  I  refer  to  the  numerous  proofs  of  my  soundness,  brought  for- 
ward by  Mr.  Parkes,  engineer  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and 
confirmed  by  Mr.  Pusey.  They  still  dispute  it.  It  is  in  vain  I  tell  them 
I  cannot  keep  the  rainwater  out  of  socketed  pipes,  twelve  feet  deep,  that 
convey  a  spring  to  my  farm  yard.  Let  us  try  and  convince  this  large 
class  of  doubters ;  for  it  is  of  national  importance.  Four  feet  of  good 
porous  clay  would  afford  a  fur  better  meal  to  some  strong  bean,  or  other 
tap  roots,  than  the  usual  six  Inches ;  and  a  saving  of  $4  to  $5  per  acre, 
in  drainage,  is  no  trifle. 

"The  shallow,  »r  non-drainers,  assume  that  tenacious  subsoils  are  Im- 
pervious or  non-absorbent  This  is  entirely  an  erroneous  assumptioa 
If  soils  were  impervious,  how  could  they  get  wet  ? 

"  I  assert,  and  pledge  my  agricultural  reputation  for  the  fact,  that  there 
are  no  earths  or  clays  in  this  kingdom,  be  they  ever  so  tenacious,  that 
will  not  readily  receive,  filter,  and  transmit  rain  water  to  drains  placed 
five  or  more  feet  deep. 

"A  neighbor  of  mine  drained  twenty  inches  deep  in  strong  clay;  th« 
ground  cracked  widely ;  the  contraction  destroyed  the  tiles,  and  th< 
rains  washed  the  surface  soils  into  the  cracks  and  choked  the  drains.  Hi 
has  since  abandoned  shallow  draining. 

"  When  I  first  began  draining,  I  allowed  myself  to  be  overruled  bf 
my  obstinate  man,  Pearson,  who  insisted  that,  for  top  water,  two  fee* 
was  a  sufficient  depth  in  a  veiny  soiL  I  allowed  him  to  try  the  exper*. 
ment  on  two  small  fields ;  the  result  was,  that  nothing  prospered  ;  ani 
I  am  redraining  those  fields  at  one-half  the  cost,  five  and  six  feet  deep 
at  intervals  of  70  and  80  feet. 

"  I  found  iron-sand  rocks,  strong  clay,  silt,  iron,  etc.,  and  an  enor- 
mous quantity  of  water,  all  Mow  the  2  foot  drains.  This  accounted  at 
once  for  the  sudden  check  the  crops  always  met  with  in  May,  when  they 
wanted  to  send  their  roots  down,  but  could  not,  without  going  into  stag- 
nant water." 

"  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  depth  of  the  drain  which  regu- 
lates the  escape  of  the  surface  water  in  a  given  time ;  regard  being  had, 
as  respects  extreme  distances,  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  a  due  capac- 
ity of  the  pipe.  The  deeper  the  drain,  even  in  the  strongest  soils,  the  quicker 
the  water  escapes.  This  is  an  astounding  but  certain  fact : 

"  That  deep  and  distant  drains,  where  a  sufficient  fall  can  be  obtained, 
are  by  far  the  most  profitable,  by  affording  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  a 
greater  rangi!  for  food." 

Of  course,  where  the  soil  is  underlaid  by  rock,  less  thau 
four  feet  from  the  surface ;  and  where  an  outlet  at  that 
depth  cannot  be  obtained,  we  must,  per  force,  drain  less 


HOW  TO  LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OP  DBAINS,  73 

deeply,  but  where  there  exists  no  such  obstacle,  drains 
should  be  laid  at  a  general  depth  of  four  feet, — general, 
not  uniform,  because  the  drain  should  have  a  uniform  in- 
clination, which  the  surface  of  the  land  rarely  has. 

The  Distance  between  the  Drains,— Concerning  this, 
there  is  less  unanimity  of  opinion  among  engineers,  than 
prevails  with  regard  to  the  question  of  depth. 

In  tolerably  porous  soils,  it  is  generally  conceded  that  40 
or  even  50  feet  is  sufficiently  near  for  4-foot  drains,  but,  for 
the  more  retentive  clays,  all  distances  from  18  feet  to  50 
feet  are  recommended,  though  those  who  belong  to  the 
more  narrow  school  are,  as  a  rule,  extending  the  limit, 
as  they  see,  in  practice,  the  complete  manner  in  which 
drains  at  wider  intervals  perform  their  work.  A  careful 
consideration  of  the  experience  of  the  past  twenty  yeara 
and  of  the  arguments  of  writers  on  drainage,  leads  to  the 
belief  that  there  are  few  soils,  which  need  draining  at  all, 
on  which  it  will  be  safe  to  place  4-foot  drains  at  much 
wider  intervals  than  40  feet.  In  the  lighter  loams  there 
are  many  instances  of  the  successful  application  of 
Professor  Mapes'  rule,  that  "3-foot  drains  should  be 
"  placed  20  feet  apart,  and  for  each  additional  foot  in 
"  depth  the  distance  may  be  doubled ;  for  instance,  4-foot 
"  drains  should  be  40  feet  apart,  and  5-foot  drains  80  feet 
"  apart."  But,  with  reference  to  the  greater  distance, 
(80  feet,)  it  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  stiff  clays,  for 
any  depth  of  drain.  Where  it  is  necessary,  by  reason  of 
insufficient  fall,  or  of  underground  rock,  to  go  only  three 
feet  deep,  the  drains  should  be  as  near  together  as  20  feet. 

At  first  thought,  it  may  seem  akin  to  quackery  to  rec- 
ommend a  uniform  depth  and  distance,  without  reference 
to  the  character  of  the  land  to  be  drained ;  and  it  is  un- 
questionably true  that  an  exact  adaptation  of  the  work  to 
the  varying  requirements  of  different  soils  would  be  bene- 
ficial, though  no  system  can  be  adopted  which  will  make 
4 


74  DBAINttfG  FOB  PROFIT  ANT)   HEALTH. 

clay  drain  as  freely  as  sand.  The  fact  is  that  the  adjust 
ment  of  the  distances  between  drains  is  very  far  from 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  an  exact  science,  and  there  is 
really  very  little  known,  by  any  one,  of  the  principles  on 
which  it  should  be  based,  or  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
bearing  of  those  principles,  in  any  particular  case,  is  af- 
fected by  several  cii  cumstances  which  vary  with  each 
change  of  soil,  inclination  and  exposure. 

In  the  essays  on  drainage  which  have  been  thus  far 
published,  there  is  a  vagueness  in  the  arguments  on  this 
branch  of  the  subject,  which  betrays  a  want  of  definite 
conviction  in  the  minds  of  the  writers  ;  and  which  tends 
quite  as  much  to  muddle  as  to  enlighten  the  ideas  of  the 
reader.  In  so  far  as  the  directions  are  given,  whether  forti- 
fied by  argument  or  not,  they  are  clearly  empirical,  and 
are  usually  very  much  qualified  by  considerations  which 
weigh  with  unequal  force  in  different  cases. 

In  laying  out  work,  any  skillful  drainer  will  be  guided, 
in  deciding  the  distance  between  the  lines,  by  a  judgment 
which  has  grown  out  of  his  former  experience ;  and  which 
will  enable  him  to  adapt  the  work,  measurably,  to  the 
requirements  of  the  particular  soil  under  consideration ; 
but  he  would  probably  find  it  impossible  to  so  state  the 
reasons  for  his  decision,  that  they  would  be  of  any  general 
value  to  others. 

Probably  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  rules  on  this  subject, 
based  on  well  sustained  theory,  can  be  laid  down  with  dis- 
tinctness, and,  in  the  mean  time,  we  must  be  guided  by 
the  results  of  practice,  and  must  confine  ourselves  to  a 
distance  which  repeated  trial,  in  various  soils,  has  proven 
to  be  safe  for  all  agricultural  land.  In  the  drainage  of 
the  Central  Park,  after  a  mature  consideration  of  all  that 
had  been  published  on  the  subject,  and  ot  a  considerable 
previous  observation  and  experience,  it  was  decided  to 
adopt  a  general  depth  of  four  feet,  and  to  adhere  as  closely 
as  possible  to  a  uniform  distance  of  forty  feet.  No  instanci 


HOW  TO  LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF  DRAINS.  75 

was  known  of  a  failure  to  produce  good  results  by  drain- 
ing at  that  distance,  and  several  cases  were  recalled  where 
drains  at  fifty  and  sixty  feet  had  proved  so  inefficient  that 
intermediate  lines  became  necessary.  After  from  seven 
to  ten  years'  trial,  the  Central  Park  drainage,  by  its  re- 
sults, has  shown  that, — although  some  of  the  land  is  of  a 
very  retentive  character, — this  distance  is  not  too  great ; 
and  it  is  adopted  here  for  recommendation  to  all  who  have 
no  especial  reason  for  supposing  that  greater  distances 
will  be  fully  effective  in  their  more  porous  soils. 

As  has  been  before  stated,  drains  at  that  distance,  (or 
at  any  distance,)  will  not  remove  all  of  the  water  of  sat- 
uration from  heavy  clays  so  rapidly  as  from  more  porous 
soil;  but,  although,  in  some  cases,  the  drainage  may  be 
insufficient  during  the  first  year,  and  not  absolutely  per- 
fect during  the  second  and  third  years,  the  increased  por- 
osity which  drainage  causes,  (as  the  summer  droughts 
make  fissures  in  the  earth,  as  decayed  roots  and  other 
organic  deposits  make  these  fissures  permanent,  and  as 
chemical  action  in  the  aerated  soil  changes  its  character,) 
will  finally  bring  clay  soils  to  as  perfect  a  condition  as  they 
are  capable  of  attaining,  and  will  invariably  render  them 
excellent  for  cultivation. 

The  Direction  of  the  Laterals  should  be  right  up  and 
down  the  slope  of  the  land,  in  the  line  of  steepest  descent. 
For  a  long  time  after  the  general  adoption  of  thorough- 
draining,  there  was  much  discussion  of  this  subject,  and 
much  variation  in  practice.  The  influence  of  the  old  rules 
for  making  surface  or  "  catch- water  "  drains  lasted  for  a 
long  time,  and  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  make  tile 
drains  follow  the  same  directions.  An  important  require- 
ment of  these  was  that  they  should  not  take  so  steep  an 
inclination  as  to  have  their  bottoms  cut  out  and  their 
banks  undermined  by  the  rapid  flow  of  water,  and  that 
they  should  arrest  and  carry  away  the  water  flowing 
down  over  the  surface  of  hill  sides.  Tho  arguments  for  the 


76  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AND    HEALTH. 

line  of  steepest  descent  were,  however,  so  clear,  ano 
drains  laid  on  that  line  were  so  universally  successful  in 
practice,  that  it  was  long  ago  adopted  by  all, — save  those 
novices  who  preferred  to  gain  their  education  in  draining 
in  the  expensive  school  of  their  own  experience. 

The  more  important  reasons  why  this  direction  is  thj 
best  are  the  following :  First,  it  is  the  quickest  way  tc 
get  the  water  off.  Its  natural  tendency  is  to  run  straight 
down  the  hill,  and  nothing  is  gained  by  diverting  it  from 
this  course.  Second,  if  the  drain  runs  obliquely  down  the 
hill,  the  water  will  be  likely  to  run  out  at  the  joints  of  the 
tile  and  wet  the  ground  below  it ;  even  if  it  do  not 
mainly,  run  past  the  drain  from  above  into  the  land  be 
low,  instead  of  being  forced  into  the  tile.  Third,  a  drain, 
lying  obliquely  across  a  hillside  will  not  be  able  to  dratf 
the  water  from  below  up  the  hill  toward  it,  and  the 
water  of  nearly  the  whole  interval  will  have  to  seek  it» 
outlet  through  the  drain  below  it.  Fourth,  drains  run- 
ning directly  down  the  hill  will  tap  any  porous  water 
bearing  strata,  which  may  crop  out,  at  regular  intervals,  and 
will  thus  prevent  the  spewing  out  of  the  water  at  the  sur- 
face, as  it  might  do  if  only  oblique  drains  ran  for  a  long 
distance  just  above  or  just  below  them.  Very  steep,  and 
very  springy  hill  sides,  sometimes  require  very  frequent 
drains  to  catch  the  water  which  has  a  tendency  to  flow  to 
the  surface  ;  this,  however,  rarely  occurs. 

In  laying  out  a  plan  for  draining  land  of  a  broken  sur- 
face, which  inclines  in  different  directions,  it  is  impossible 
to  make  the  drains  follow  the  line  of  steepest  descent,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  have  them  all  parallel,  and  at  uniform 
distances.  In  all  such  cases  a  compromise  must  be  made 
between  the  two  requirements.  The  more  nearly  the  par- 
allel arrangement  can  be  preserved,  the  less  costly  will 
the  work  be,  while  the  more  nearly  we  follow  the  steepest 
slope  of  the  ground,  the  more  efficient  will  each  drain  be. 
No  rule  for  this  adjustment  can  be  given,  but  a  careful 


HOW   TO   LAY    OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS.  Tl 

study  of  the  plan  of  the  ground,  and  of  its  contour  lines, 
will  aid  in  its  determination.  On  all  irregular  ground  it 
requires  great  skill  to  secure  the  greatest  efficiency  consis- 
tent with  economy. 

The  fall  required  in.  well  made  tile  drains  is  very  much 
ess  than  would  be  supposed,  by  an  inexperienced  person, 
to  be  necessary.  Wherever  practicable,  without  too  great 
cost,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  fall  of  one  foot  in  one  hun- 
dred feet,  but  more  than  this  in  ordinary  work  is  not  es- 
pecially to  be  sought,  although  there  is,  of  course,  no 
objection  to  very  much  greater  inclination. 

One  half  of  that  amount  of  fall,  or  six  inches  in  one 
hundred  feet,  is  quite  sufficient,  if  the  execution  of  the 
work  is  carefully  attended  to. 

The  least  rate  of  fall  which  it  is  prudent  to  give  to  a 
drain,  in  using  ordinary  tiles,  is  2.5  in  1,000,  or  three  inches 
in  one  hundred  feet,  and  even  this  requires  very  careful 
work.*  A  fall  of  six  inches  in  one  hundred  feet  is  recom- 
mended whenever  it  can  be  easily  obtained — not  as  being 
more  effective,  but  as  requiring  less  precision,  and  conse- 
quently less  expense. 

Kinds  and  Sizes  Of  Tiles,— Agricultural  drain-tiles  are 
made  of  clay  similar  to  that  which  is  used  for  brick. 
When  burned,  they  are  from  twelve  inches  to  fourteen 
inches  long,  with  an  interior  diameter  of  from  one  to 
eight  inches,  and  with  a  thickness  of  wall,  (depending  on 
the  strength  of  the  clay,  and  the  size  of  the  bore,)  of  from 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  to  more  than  an  inch.  They  are 
porous,  to  the  extent  of  absorbing  a  certain  amount  of 
water,  but  their  porosity  has  nothing  to  do  with  their  use 
for  drainage, — for  this  purpose  they  might  as  well  be  of 
glass.  The  water  enters  them,  not  through  their  walls, 

*  Some  of  the  drains  in  the  Central  Park  have  a  fall  of  only  1  In 
1,000,  and  they  work  perfectly ;  but  they  are  lar^e  mains,  laid  with  an 
amount  of  care,  and  with  certain  costly  precautions,  (including  precisely 
graded  wooden  floors,)  which  could  hardly  be  expected  in  private  work 


78  DRAINING    FOR    PROFIT   AND    IIEALTH. 

but  at  their  joints,  which  cannot  be  made  so  tight  that 
they  will  not  admit  the  very  small  amount  of  water  that 
will  need  to  enter  at  each  space.  Gisborne  says  : 

"  If  an  acre  of  land  be  intersected  with  parallel  drains 
"  twelve  yards  apart,  and  if  on  that  acre  should  fall  the 
"  very  unusual  quantity  of  one  inch  of  rain  in  twelve 
"  hours,  in  order  that  every  drop  of  this  rain  may  be  dis- 
"  charged  by  the  drains  in  forty-eight  hours  from  the  eom- 
"  mencement  of  the  rain — (and  in  a  less  period  that  quan- 
"  tity  neither  will,  not  is  it  desirable  that  it  should,  filter 
"through  an  agricultural  soil) — the  interval  between  two 
"  pipes  will  be  called  upon  to  pass  two-thirds  of  a  table- 
"  spoonful  of  water  per  minute,  and  no  more.  Inch  pipes, 
"  lying  at  a  small  inclination,  and  running  only  half-full, 
"  will  discharge  more  than  double  this  quantity  of  water 
"  in  forty-eight  hours." 

Tiles  may  be  made  of  any  desired  form  of  section, — the 
usual  forms  are  the  "horse-shoe,"  the  "sole,"  the  "dou- 
ble-sole," and  the  *'  round."  The  latter  may  be  used  with 
collars,  and  they  constitute  the  "  pipes  and  collars,"  fre- 
quently referred  to  in  English  books  on  drainage. 

Horse-shoe  tiles,  Fig.  13,  are  condemned  by  all  modern 
engineers.  Mr.  Gisborne  disposes  of  them  by  an  argument 
of  some  length,  the  quotation 
of  which  in  these  pages  is 
probably  advisable,  because 

dints  than  stones,  and  to  that  extent  have  been  so  success- 
fully employed,  that  they  are  still  largely  used  in  this  coun- 
try by  "  amateurs." 

"  We  shall  shock  some  and  surprise  many  of  our  readers,  when  we 
state  confidently  that,  in  average  soils,  and,  still  more,  in  those  which 
are  inclined  to  be  tender,  hor.-e  shoe  tiles  form  the  weakest  and  most 
failing  conduit  which  has  ever  been  used  for  a  deep  drain.  It  is  so,  how- 
ever ;  and  a  little  thought,  even  if  we  had  no  experience,  will  tell  us 
that  it  must  be  so.  A  doggrel  son-r,  quite  destitute  of  humor,  informs 
ts  that  tiles  of  this  sort  were  used  in  1760  at  Grandesburg  Hall,  in  Suf- 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT  A  SYSTEM    OP  toRAINS.  79 

folk,  by  Mr.  Charles  Lawrence,  the  owner  of  the  estate.  The  earliest  of 
which  we  had  experience  were  of  large  area  and  of  weak  form.  Constant 
failures  resulted  from  their  use,  and  the  cause  was  investigated  ;  many 
of  the  tiles  were  found  to  be  choked  up  with  clay,  and  many  to  be  bro- 
ken longitudinally  through  the  crown.  For  the  first  evil,  two  remedies 
were  adopted;  a  sole  of  slate,  of  wood,  or  of  its  own  material,  was 
sometimes  placed  under  the  tile,  but  the  more  usual  practice  was  to  form 
them  wiih  club-feet  To  meet  the  case  of  longitudinal  fracture,  the  tiles 
were  reduced  in  size,  and  very  much  thickened  in  proportion  to  their 
area.  The  first  of  these  remedies  was  founded  on  an  entirely  mistaken, 
and  the  second  on  no  conception  at  all  of  the  cause  of  the  evil  to  which 
they  were  respectively  applied.  The  idea  was,  that  this  tile,  standing  on 
narrow  feet,  and  pressed  by  the  weight  of  the  refilled  soil,  sank  into  the 
floor  of  the  drain  ;  whereas,  in  fact,  the  floor  of  the  drain  rose  into  the 
tile.  Any  one  at  all  conversant  with  collieries  is  aware  that  when  a  xlrail 
work  (which  is  a  small  subterranean  tunnel  six  feet  high  and  four  feet 
wide  or  thereabouts)  is  driven  in  coal,  the  rising  of  the  floor  is  a  more 
usual  and  far  more  inconvenient  occurrence  than  the  falling  of  the  roof: 
the  weight  of  the  two  sides  squeezes  up  the  floor.  We  have  seen  it 
formed  into  a  very  decided  arch  without  fracture.  Exactly  a  similar 
operation  takes  place  in  the  drain.  No  one  had  till  recently  dreamed  of 
"orming  a  tile  drain,  the  bottom  of  which  a  man  was  not  to  approach 
personally  within  twenty  inches  or  two  feet.  To  no  one  had  it  then  oc- 
curred that  width  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain  was  a  great  evil.  For  the 
convenience  of  the  operator  the  drain  was  formed  with  nearly  perpen- 
dicular sides,  of  a  width  in  which  he  could  stand  and  work  conveniently, 
shovel  the  botlom  level  with  his  ordinary  spade,  and  lay  the  tiles  by  his 
hand ;  the  result  was  a  drain  with  nearly  perpendicular  sides,  and  a  wide 
bottom.  No  sort  of  clay,  particularly  when  softened  by  water  standing 
on  it  or  running  over  it,  could  fail  to  rise  under  such  circumstances  ;  and 
the  deeper  the  drain  the  greater  the  pressure  and  the  more  certain  the 
rising.  A  horse-shoe  tile,  which  may  be  a  tolerably  secure  conduit  in  a 
drain  of  two  feet,  in  one  of  four  feet  becomes  an  almost  certain  failure. 
As  to  the  longitudinal  fractura — not  only  is  the  tile  subject  to  be  broken 
by  one  of  those  slips  which  are  so  troublesome  in  deep  draining,  and  to 
which  the  lightly-filled  material,  even  when  the  drain  is  completed, 
offers  an  imperfect  resistance,  but  the  constant  pressure  together  of  the 
sides,  even  when  it  does  not  produce  a  fracture  of  the  soil,  catches  hold 
of  the  feet  of  the  tile,  and  breaks  it  through  the  crown.  Consider  the 
case  of  a  drain  formed  in  clay  when  dry,  the  conduit  a  horse-shoe  tile. 
When  the  clay  expands  with  moisture,  it  necessarily  presses  on  the  tile 
and  breaks  it  through  the  crown,  its  weakest  part.*  When  the  Regent's 


*  The  tile  has  been  said,  by  great  authorities,  to  be  broken  by  contraction, 
under  some  idea  that  the  clay  envelops  the  tile  and  presses  it  when  it  contracts. 
That  is  nonsense.  The  contraction  would  liberate  the  tile.  Drive  a  stake  into 
wet  clay ;  and  when  the  clay  is  dry.  observe  whether  it  clasps  the  stake  tighter  01 
has  released  it,  and  you  will  no  longer  have  any  doubt  whether  expansion  or  ecu 
tnction  breaks  the  tile.  Shrink  is  a  better  word  than  contract. 


80  DRAINING    FOR   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

Park  was  first  drained,  large  conduits  were  in  fashion,  rnd  they  were 
made  circular  by  placing  one  horse-shoe  tile  upon  another.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  invent  a  weaker  conduit.  On  re-drainage,  innumerable  in- 
stances were  found  in  which  the  upper  tile  was  broken  through  the 
crown,  and  had  dropped  into  the  lower.  Next  came  the  Q  form,  tile  and 
sole  in  one,  and  much  reduced  in  size — a  great  advance;  and  when  some 
skillful  operator  had  laid  this  tile  bottom  upwards  we  were  evidently  on 
the  eve  of  pipes.  For  the  3  tile  a  round  pipe  moulded  with  a  flat-bot- 
tomed solid  sole  is  now  generally  substituted,  and  is  an  improvement ; 
but  is  not  equal  to  pipes  and  collars,  nor  generally  cheaper  than  they 
are." 

One  chief  objection  to  the  Sole-tiles  is,  that,  in  the  dry- 
ing which  they  undergo,  preparatory  to  the  burning,  the 
upper  side  is  contracted,  by 
the  more  rapid  drying,  and 
they  often  require  to  be  trim- 
med off  with  a  hatchet  before 

they  will  form  even  tolerable  joints ;  another  is,  that  they 
cannot  be  laid  with  collars,  which  form  a  joint  so  perfect 
and  so  secure,  that  their  use,  in  the  smaller  drains,  should 
be  considered  indispensable. 

The  double-sole  tiles,  which  can  be  laid  either  side  up 

but  they  are  so  heavy  as  to 

make  the  cost  of  transpor-    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  -" 

.        .  .  T  ,  !  Fig.  15. — DOUBLE-SOLE   TILE. 

tation  considerably  greater. 

They  are  also  open  to  the  grave  objection  that  they  can- 
not be  fitted  with  collars. 

Experience,  in  both  public  and  private  works  in  this 
country,  and  the  cumulative  testimony  of  English  and 
French  engineers,  have  demonstrated  that  the  only  tile 
which  it  is  economical  to  use,  is  the  best  that  can  be  found, 
and  that  the  best, — much  the  best — thus  far  invented,  is 
the  "  pipe,  or  round  tile,  and  collar," — and  these  are  un- 
hesitatingly recommended  for  tise  in  all  cases.  Round 
tiles  of  small  sizes  should  not  be  laid  without  collars,  as  the 
ability  to  use  these  constitutes  their  chief  advantage; 
holding  them  perfectly  in  place,  preventing  the  rattling 


HOW    TO    LAY    OUT   A    SYSTEM    OF    DRAINS.  81 

in  of  loose  dirt  in  laying,  and  giving  twice  the  space  for 
the  entrance  of  water  at  the  joints.  A  chief  advantage 
of  the  larger  sizes  is,  that  they  may  be  laid  on  any  side 
and  thus  made  to  fit  closely.  The  usual  sizes  of  these 
tiles  are  1|  inches,  2|  inches,  and  3^  inches  in  interior  di- 
ameter. Sections  of  the  Z\  inch  make  collars  for  the  1} 


.  16. — ROUND  TILE  AND   COLLAR,   AND   THE   SAME  AS  LAID. 

inch,  and  sections  of  the  3£  inch  make  collars  for  the  2f 
inch.  The  3|  inch  size  does  not  need  collars,  as  it  is  easily 
secured  in  place,  and  is  only  used  where  the  flow  of  water 
would.be  sufficient  to  wash  out  the  slight  quantity  of  for- 
eign matters  that  might  enter  at  the  joints. 

The  Size  of  tile  to  be  used  is  a  question  of  consequence. 
In  England,  1-inch  pipes  are  frequently  used,  but  1}  inch* 
are  recommended  for  the  smallest  drains.  Beyond  this 
limit,  the  proper  size  to  select  is,  the  smallest  that  can  con- 
vey the  water  which  rrill  ordinarily  reach  it  after  a  heavy 
rain.  The  smaller  the  pipe,  the  more  concentrated  the 
flow,  and,  consequently,  the  more  thoroughly  obstructions 
will  be  removed,  and  the  occasional  flushing  of  the  pipe, 
when  it  is  taxed,  for  a  few  hours,  to  its  utmost  capacity, 
will  insure  a  thorough  cleansing.  No  inconvenience  can 
result  from  the  fact  that,  on  rare  occasions,  the  drain  is 
unable,  for  a  short  time,  to  discharge  all  the  water  that 
reaches  it,  and  if  collars  are  used,  or  if  the  clay  be  well 
packed  about  the  pipes,  there  need  be  no  fear  of  the  tile 
being  displaced  by  the  pressure.  An  idea  of  the  drying 
capacity  of  a  IJ-inch  tile  may  be  gained  from  observing 
its  wetting  capacity,  by  connecting  a  pipe  of  this  size  with 


*  Taking  the  difference  of  friction  into  consideration,  1^  inch  pipe* 
have  hilly  twice  the  discharging  capacity  of  1-inch  pipes. 


82  DRATXIXG   FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

ft  sufficient  body  of  water,  at  its  surface,  and  discharging, 
over  a  level  dry  field,  all  the  water  which  it  will  carry. 
A  IJ-inch  pipe  will  remove  all  the  water  which  would  fall 
on  an  acre  of  land  in  a  very  heavy  rain,  in  24  hours, — 
much  less  tune  than  the  water  would  occupy  in  getting  tc 
the  tile,  in  any  soil  which  required  draining ;  and  tiles  of 
this  size  are  ample  for  the  draining  of  two  acres.  In  like 
manner,  2^-inch  tile  will  suffice  for  eight,  and  3.^ -inch  tile 
for  twenty  acres.  The  foregoing  estimates  are,  of  course, 
made  on  the  supposition  that  only  the  water  which  falls 
on  the  land,  (storm  water,)  is  to  be  removed.  For  main 
drains,  when  greater  capacity  is  required,  two  tiles  may  be 
laid,  (side  by  side,)  or  in  such  cases  the  larger  sizes  of 
sole  tiles  may  be  used,  being  somewhat  cheaper.  Where 
the  drains  are  laid  40  feet  apart,  about  1,000  tiles  per  acre 
will  be  required,  and,  in  estimating  the  quantity  of  tiles  of 
the  different  sizes  to  be  purchased,  reference  should  be 
had  to  the  following  figures ;  the  first  2,000  feet  of  drains 
require  a  collecting  drain  of  2}-inch  tile,  which  will  take 
the  water  from  7,000  feet ;  and  for  the  outlet  of  from 
7,000  to  20,000  feet  3Hnch  tile  may  be  used.  Collars, 
being  more  subject  to  breakage,  should  be  ordered  in  some- 
what larger  quantities. 

Of  course,  such  guessing  at  what  is  required,  which  is 
especially  uncertain  if  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  so 
irregular  as  to  require  much  deviation  from  regular  par- 
allel lines,  is  obviated  by  the  careful  preparation  of  a  plan 
of  the  work,  which  enables  us  to  measure,  beforehand,  the 
length  of  drain  requiring  the  different  sizes  of  conduit 
and,  as  tiles  are  usually  made  one  or  two  inches  more  than 
a  foot  long,  a  thousand  of  them  will  lay  a  thousand  feet, — 
leaving  a  sufficient  allowance  for  breakage,  and  for  such 
slight  deviations  of  the  lines  as  may  be  necessary  to  pass 
around  those  stones  which  are  too  large  to  remove.  In  very 
stony  ground,  the  length  of  lines  is  often  materially  in- 
creased, but  in  such  ground,  there  is  usually  rock  enough 


HOW   TO   LAY    OUT   A   SYSTEM   OF    DKA.IJSS.  83 

or  such  accumulations  of  boulders  in  some  ports,  to  re- 
duce the  lengti  of  drain  which  it  is  possible  to  lay,  at 
least  as  much  as  the  deviations  will  increase  it. 

It  is  always  best  to  make  a  contract  for  tile  considera- 
bly in  advance.  The  prices  which  are  given  in  the  adver- 
tisements of  the  makers,  are  those  at  which  a  single  thou 
sand, — or  even  a  few  hundred,— can  be  purchased,  and 
very  considerable  reductions  of  price  may  be  secured  on 
large  orders.  Especially  is  this  the  case  if  the  land  is  so 
situated  that  the  tile  may  be  purchased  at  either  one  of 
two  tile  works, — for  the  prices  of  all  are  extravagantly 
high,  and  manufacturers  will  submit  to  large  discounts 
rather  than  lose  an  important  order. 

It  is  especially  recommended,  in  making  the  contract, 
to  stipulate  that  every  tile  shall  be  hard-burned,  and  that 
those  which  will  not  give  a  clear  ring  when  struck  with 
a  metallic  instrument,  shall  be  rejected,  and  the  cost  of 
their  transportation  borne  by  the  maker.  The  tiles  used 
in  the  Central  Park  drainage  were  all  tested  with  the  aid 
of  a  bit  of  steel  which  had,  at  one  end,  a  cutting  edge. 
With  this  instrument  each  tile  was  "sounded,"  and  its 
hardness  was  tested  by  scraping  the  square  edge  of  the 
bore.  If  it  did  not  "  ring  "  when  struck,  or  if  the  edge 
was  easily  cut,  it  was  rejected.  From  the  first  cargo  there 
were  many  thrown  out,  but  as  soon  as  the  maker  saw  that 
they  were  really  inspected,  he  sent  tile  of  good  quality 
only.  Care  should  also  be  taken  that  no  over-burned 
tile, — such  as  have  been  melted  and  warped,  or  very  much 
contracted  in  size  by  too  great  heat, — be  smuggled  into 
the  count. 

A  little  practice  will  enable  an  ordinary  workman  to 
throw  out  those  which  are  imperfect,  and,  as  a  single  tile 
which  is  so  underdone  that  it  will  not  last,  or  which,  from 
over-burning,  has  too  small  an  orifice,  may  destroy  a  long 
drain,  or  a  whole  system  of  drains,  the  inspection  should 
be  thorough. 


84  DBAIXLN'G   FOE   PEOFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

The  collars  should  be  examined  with  equal  cart>.  Con 
cerning  tlie  use  of  these,  Gisborne  says: 

"  To  one  advantage  which  is  derived  from  the  use  of 
"  collars  we  have  not  yet  adverted — the  increased  facility 
"  with  which  free  water  existing  in  the  soil  can  find  en- 
"  trance  into  the  conduit.  The  collar  for  a  1-inch  pipe 
'  has  a  circumference  of  three  inches.  The  whcle  space 
;'  between  the  collar  and  the  pipe  on  each  side  of  the 
"  collar  is  open,  and  affords  no  resistance  to  the  en- 
"  trance  of  water;  while  at  the  same  time  the  superin- 
"  cuuibent  arch  of  the  collar  protects  the  junction  of  two 
"pipes  from  the  intrusion  of  particles  of  soil.  We  con- 
*'  fess  to  some  original  misgivings  that  a  pipe  resting  only 
"  on  an  inch  at  each  end,  and  lying  hollow,  might  prove 
"  weak  and  liable  to  fracture  by  weight  pressing  on  it 
"  from  above  ;  but  the  fear  was  illusory.  Small  particles 
"  of  soil  trickle  down  the  sides  of  every  drain,  and  the 
"  first  flow  of  water  will  deposit  them  in  the  vacant  space 
"  between  the  two  collars.  The  bottom,  if  at  all  soft,  will 
also  swell  up  into  any  vacancy.  Practically,  if  you  re- 
"  open  a  drain  well  laid  with  pipes  and  collars,  you  will 
"  find  them  reposing  in  a  beautiful  nidus,  which,  when  they 
"  are  carefully  removed,  looks  exactly  as  if  it  had  been 
"  moulded  for  them." 

The  cost  of  collars  should  not  be  considered  an  objec-* 
*ion  to  their  use ;  because,  without  collars  it  would  not  be 
safe,  (as  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  orifices  of  two  pieces 
come  exactly  opposite  to  each  other,)  to  use  less  than  2- 
inch  tiles,  while,  with  collars,  1  j-inch  are  sufficient  for  tha 
same  use,  and,  including  the  cost  of  collars,  are  hardly 
moi*e  expensive. 

It  is  usual,  in  all  works  on  agricultural  drainage,  to  in- 
sert tables  and  formulae  for  the  guidance  of  those  who 
are  to  determine  the  size  of  tile  required  to  discharge  the 
water  of  a  certain  area.  The  practice  is  not  adopted  heiet 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT   A  SYSTEM   OP  DKADTS.  85 

for  the  reason  that  all  such  tables  are  without  practical 
va.ue.  The  smoothness  and  uniformity  of  the  bore;  the 
rate  of  fall ;  the  depth  of  the  drain,  and  consequent 
"  head,"  or  pressure,  of  the  water ;  the  different  effects  of 
different  soils  in  retarding  the  flow  of  the  water  to  the 
drain  ;  the  different  degrees  to  which  angles  in  the  line  of 
tile  affect  the  flow ;  the  degree  of  acceleration  of  the  flow 
which  is  caused  by  greater  or  less  additions  to  the  stream 
at  the  junction  of  branch  drains;  and  other  considera- 
tions, arising  at  every  step  of  the  calculation,  render  it 
impossible  to  apply  delicate  mathematical  rules  to  work 
which  is,  nt  best,  rude  and  unmathematical  in  the  extreme. 
In  sewerage,  and  the  water  supply  of  towns,  such  tables 
are  useful, — though,  even  in  the  most  perfect  of  these 
operations,  engineers  always  make  large  allowances  for 
circumstances  whose  influence  cannot  be  exactly  meas 
ured, — but  in  land  drainage,  the  ordinary  rules  of  hydrau 
lies  have  to  be  considered  in  so  many  different  bearings 
that  the  computations  of  the  books  are  not  at  all  reliable. 
For  instance,  Messrs.  Shedd  &  Edson,  of  Boston,  have 
prepared  a  series  of  tables,  based  on  Smeaton's  experi- 
ments, for  the  different  sizes  of  tile,  laid  at  different  incli- 
nations, in  which  they  state  that  li-mch  tile,  laid  with  a 
fall  of  one  foot  in  a  length  of  one  hundred  feet,  will  dis- 
charge 12,054.81  gallons  of  water  in  24  hours.  This  is 
•equal  to  a  rain-fall  of  over  350  inches  per  year  on  an  acre 
of  land.  As  the  average  annual  rain-fall  in  the  United 
States  is  about  40  inches,  at  lenst  one-half  of  which  is  re- 
moved by  evaporation,  it  would  follow,  from  this  table, 
that  a  1  i-inch  pipe,  with  the  above  named  fall,  would 
serve  for  the  drainage  of  about  17  acre*.  But  the  calcu- 
lation is  again  disturbed  by  the  fact  that  the  rain-fall  is 
not  evenly  distributed  over  all  the  days  of  the  year, — as 
much  as  six  inches  having,  been  known  to  fall  ia  a  single 
24  hours,  (amounting  to  about  150,000  gallons  per  acre,) 
and  the  removal  of  this  water  in  a  single  day  would  ve 


86  DRAINING  FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

quire  a  tile  nearly  five  inches  in  diameter,  laid  at  tne 
given  fall,  or  a  3-inch  tile  laid  at  a  fall  of  more  than  7,  feet 
in  100  feet.  But,  again,  so  much  water  could  not  reach  a 
drain  four  feet  from  the  surface,  in  so  short  a  time,  and 
the  time  required  would  depend  very  much  on  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil.  Obviously,  then,  these  tables  are  worthless 
for  our  purpose.  Experience  has  fully  shown  that  the  sizes 
which  are  recommended  below  are  ample  for  practical 
purposes,  and  probably  the  areas  to  be  drained  by  the 
given  sizes  might  be  greatly  increased,  especially  with  ref- 
erence to  such  soils  as  do  not  allow  water  to  percolate  very 
freely  through  them. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  attention  is  called  to  the 
following  extract  from  the  Author's  Report  on  the  Drain- 
age, which  accompanies  the  "Third  Annual  Report  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Central  Park : " 

"  In  order  to  test  the  efficiency  of  the  system  of  drainage 
"  employed  on  the  Park,  I  have  caused  daily  observations 
"to  be  taken  of  the  amount  of  water  discharged  from  the 
"principal  drain  of  '  the  Green,'  and  have  compared  it 
"  with  the  amount  of  rain-fall.  A  portion  of  the  record  ol 
"  those  observations  is  herewith  presented. 

"In  the  column  headed  'Rain-Fall,'  the  amount  of 
"water  falling  on  one  acre  during  the  entire  storm,  is  given 
"  in  gallons.  This  is  computed  from  the  record  of  a  rain 
"  gauge  kept  on  the  Park. 

"Under  the  head  of  'Discharge,'  the  number  of  gallons 
"of  water  drained  from  one  acre  during  24  hours  is  given. 
"Tins  is  computed  from  observations  taken, once  a  day  or 
"oftener,  and  supposes  the  discharge  during  the  entire 
"  day  to  be  the  same  as  at  the  time  of  taking  the  observa 
**tious.  It  is,  consequently,  but  approximately  correct: 


HOW   TO   LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OP   DRAINS. 


87 


DATB. 

HOUR. 

RAIN-FALL. 

)ISCHAKGE. 

REMABK8. 

/     Ground  dry.    No  rain  since  3d 

July  13. 

10       A.  X. 

49,916  galls. 

184  galls. 

j  inst.;  2  inches  rain  fell  between 
j  5.15  and  5.45  P.  M.,  and  l-5th  of  an 

(  inch  between  5.45  and  7.15. 

44    14. 

44    15. 

jit    » 

4,968     " 
1,325     " 

44    16. 

1,104     44 

44    16. 

6      p.  x. 

33,398     " 

7,764     4% 

)     Ground  saturated  at  a  depth  o. 
)  2  feet  when  this  rain  commenced. 

44    17. 

4,819     44 

44    18. 

9       A.  X. 

2,208     44 

44    19. 

7 

1,325     " 

44    20. 

gi/ 

993     44 

44    21. 

11 

662     " 

44    22. 

6V6 

660     44 

44    23. 
44    24. 

10 

1,698      " 

515     44 
442     " 

This  slight  rain  only  affected  the 
ratio  of  decrease. 

Aug.   3. 
44      6. 

P 

8,490      " 
13,018      " 
45,288      " 

191     44 

184     " 
368     44 

Nothing  worthy  of  note  until  Aug.  8. 
Rain  from  3  P.  x.  to  3.30  P.  x. 
44        4.45  P.  x.  to  12  x.  H. 
44        12  x.  to  6  P.  x. 

8,280     44 

44      6. 

3,954     " 

44      7. 

2'fi2S     " 

44      8. 
44      9. 

^ 

662     " 

"    12. 

i^ 

368     44 

Rain  12  x.  Aug.  12  to  7  A.  M.  Aug.  18. 

•'    13. 

19,244      " 

1,104     4t 

14    14. 

736     44 

"    24. 

1,132      " 

191      44 

44    8  A.  x.  to  4.15  A  .x. 

14    25. 

6,547      " 

9,936     " 

44    3.30  P.  x.  24th,  to  7  A.  x.  26th 

14    25. 

566      " 

7,740     44 

14    7  A.  x.  to  12  x. 

4'    26. 

Vi 

3,974     44 

44    26. 

2,208     44 

44    27. 

<l/» 

666      44 

1,529     || 

44    4  p.  x.  to  6  P.  x. 

**    28. 
Sep.  11. 
"    12. 

566      " 
5,094      u 

165     " 

147     44 

44    12  x.  N.  (10th)  to  7  A.  x.  (l.lth.) 
44    12  M.  (llth)  to  7  A.  x.  (12th.) 

44    13. 

566      " 

132     44 

44    4  p.  x.  to  6  P.  x. 

44    16. 

15,848      " 

110     44 

44    12  x.  to  12  x.  N. 

44    17. 

27.552      44 

1,104     " 

Rain  continued  until  12  x. 

44    17. 

6,624     »' 

44    18. 

666      4t 

4,968     44 

44    19. 

K 

2,208     44 

44    19. 

1,805     " 

44    20. 

566      " 

1,324     " 

Rain  fm  12  x.  (19th)  to  7  A.  x.  (20th.) 

44    21. 
44    22. 

44    23. 

5,094      4t 
10.185      " 
40,756      44 

945     " 
1,656     " 
7,948     4t 

44      8.20  P.x.(20th)  to  6  A.x.(21s1.) 
44      12  x.  (21st)  to  7  A.  x.  (22d.) 
Rain  continued  until  7  A.  x.  (23d.) 

44    24. 

4,968     " 

44    25. 

666      " 

2,984     44 

44    26. 

2,484     " 

Oct.     1. 
Vov.  18. 

828     44 
83     44 

(     There  was  not  enough  rain  dnr- 
-<  ing  this  period  to  materially  affect 
|  the  flow  of  water. 

44    19. 

1,132      44 

184     " 

Rain  4.50  P.  x.  (18th)  to  8  A.  x.  (19th.) 

4i    20. 

119     44 

44    22. 
«i    22 

29,336      4I 

6,624     " 
6  624     4i 

Rain  all  of  the  previous  night. 

u    23. 

4)968  " 

44    24. 

1  711     44 

44    S4. 

8 

l!417     " 

Dec.  17. 

9 

552     " 

44    18. 

4,968     44 

Rain  during  the  prerlwu  night 

681     " 

88  DBAIKING   FOB   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

"  The  tract  drained  by  this  system,  though  very  swampy 
u  before  being  drained,  is  now  dry  enough  to  walk  upon, 
"almost  immediately  after  a  storm,  except  when  underlaid 
"  by  a  stratum  of  frozen  ground." 

The  area  drained  by  the  main  at  which  these  gaugingi 
were  made,  is  about  ten  acres,  and,  in  deference  to  the 
prevailing  mania  for  large  conduits,  it  had  been  laid  with 
6-ineh  sole-tile.  The  greatest  recorded  discharge  in  24 
hours  was  (August  25th,)  less  than  100,000  gallons  from 
the  ten  acres, — an  amount  of  water  which  did  not  half  fill 
the  tile,  but  which,  according  to  the  tables  referred  to, 
would  have  entirely  filled  it. 

In  view  of  all  the  information  that  can  be  gathered 
on  the  subject,  the  following  directions  are  given  as  per- 
fectly reliable  for  drains  four  feet  or  more  in  depth,  laid 
on  a  well  regulated  fall  of  even  three  inches  in  a  hundred 
feet: 

For      2  acres     1£  inch  pipes  (with  collars.) 

For     8  acres     2|    "       "      (  «        «       ) 

For    20  acres     3£    " 

For   40  acres  2  3£    "        "      or  one  5-inch  sole-tile. 

For    50  acres     6     "        "      sole-tile. 

For  100  acres     8     "        "      or  two  6-inch  sole-tiles. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  these  drains  will  immediately 
remove  all  the  water  of  the  heaviest  storms,  but  they  will 
always  remove  it  fast  enougli  for  all  practical  purposes, 
and,  if  the  pipes  are  securely  laid,  the  drains  will  only  be 
benefited  by  the  occasional  cleansing  they  will  receive 
when  running  "  more  than  full"  In  illustration  of  this 
statement,  the  following  is  quoted  from  a  paper  communi- 
cated by  Mr.  Parkes  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  ot 
England  in  1843 : 

"Mr.  Thomas  Hammond,  of  Penshuret,  (Kent,)  now 
"uses  no  other  size  for  the  parallel  drains  than  the  inch 
"  tile  in  the  table  (No.  5,)  having  commenced  with  No 


HOW    TO   LAY    OUT   A   SYSTEM    OF   DRAIN'S.  89 

u  4,*  and  it  may  be  here  stated,  that  the  opinion  of  all  the 
u  farmers  who  have  used  them  in  the  Weald,  is  that  a  bore 
"of  an  inch  area  is  abundantly  large.  A  piece  of  9  acres, 
"  now  sown  with  wheat,  was  observed  by  the  writer,  36 
*'  hours  after  the  termination  of  a  rain  which  fell  heavily 
"  and  incessantly  during  12  hours  on  the  7th  of  Novem- 
"  ber.  This  field  was  drained  in  March,  1842,  to  the  depth 
u  of  30  to  36  inches,  at  a  distance  of  24  feet  asunder,  the 
"  length  of  each  drain  being  235  yards. 

"  Each  drain  emptied  itself  through  a  fence  bank  into 
u  a  running  stream  in  a  road  below  it ;  the  discharge 
"  therefore  was  distinctly  observable.  Two  or  three  of 
"  the  pipes  had  now  ceased  running ;  and,  with  the  ex- 
"  ception  of  one  which  tapped  a  small  spring  and  gave  a 
"  stream  about  the  size  of  a  tobacco  pipe,  the  run  from 
"  the  others  did  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  wheat  straw 
"  The  greatest  flow  had  been  observed  by  Mr.  Hammond 
"  at  no  time  to  exceed  half  the  bore  of  the  pipes.  The 
"  fall  in  this  field  is  very  great,  and  the  drains  are  laid  ic 
"  the  direction  of  the  fall,  which  has  always  been  the  prao 
"  tice  in  this  district.  The  issuing  water  was  transpa- 
"  rently  clear ;  and  Mr.  Hammond  states  that  he  has 
"  never  observed  cloudiness,  except  for  a  short  time  after 
"very  heavy  flushes  of  rain,  when  the  drains  are  quickly 
"  cleared  of  all  sediment,  in  consequence  of  the  velocity 
"  and  force  of  the  water  passing  through  so  small  a  channel. 
"Infiltration  through  the  soil  and  into  the  pipes,  must, 
"  in  this  case,  be  considered  to  have  been  perfect ;  and 
"  their  observed  action  is  the  more  determinate  and  valua- 
•*  ble  as  regards  time  and  effect,  as  the  land  was  saturated 
"  with  moisture  previous  to  this  particular  fall  of  rain. 
"  and  the  pipes  had  ceased  to  run  when  it  commenced 
"  This  piece  had,  previous  to  us  drainage,  necessarily 
t;  been  cultivated  in  narrow  stetches,  with  an  open  water 

*  Jf  j  5  was  one  inch  in  diameter;  No.  4,  about  1}£  incbeo. 


90  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH 

4< farrow  between  them;  but  it  was  now  laid  c,aite  plain, 
"  by  which  one-eighth  of  the  continuation  of  acreage  has 
"  been  saved.  Xot,  however,  being  confident  as  to  the 
u  soil  having  already  become  so  porous  as  to  dispense  en- 
"  tirely  with  surface  drains,  Mr.  Hammond  had  drawu 
u  two  long  water  furrows  diagonally  across  tho  field.  On 
"  examining  these,  it  appeared  that  very  little  water  had 
"ilowed  along  any  part  of  them  during  these  12  hours  of 
"  rain, — no  water  had  escaped  at  their  outfall ;  the  entire 
*'  body  of  rain  had  permeated  the  mass  of  the  bed,  and 
"  passed  off  through  the  inch  pipes ;  no  water  perceptible 
"on  the  surface,  which  used  to  carry  it  throughout.  The 
"  subsoil  is  a  brick  clay,  but  it  appears  to  crack  very 
"  rapidly  by  shrinkage  consequent  to  drainage." 

Obstructions. — The  danger  that  drains  will  become 
obstructed,  if  not  properly  laid  out  and  properly  made,  is 
very  great,  and  the  cost  of  removing  the  obstructions, 
(often  requiring  whole  lines  to  be  taken  up,  washed,  and 
relaid  with  the  extra  care  that  is  required  in  working  in 
old  and  soft  lines,)  is  often  greater  than  the  original  cost 
of  the  improvement.  Consequently,  the  possibility  of  tile 
drains  becoming  stopped  up  should  be  fully  considered 
at  the  outset,  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  so  disastrous  a  result. 

The  principal  causes  of  obstruction  are  silt,  vermin,  and 
roots. 

Silt  is  earth  which  is  washed  into  the  tile  with  thfi 
water  of  the  soil,  and  which,  though  it  may  be  carried 
along  in  suspension  in  the  water,  when  the  fall  is  good, 
will  be  deposited  in  the  eddies  and  slack-water,  which 
occur  whenever  -there  is  a  break  in  the  fall,  or  a  defect  in 
the  laying  of  the  tile. 

When  it  is  practicable  to  avoid  it,  no  drain  should 
have  a  decreasing  rate  of  fall  as  it  approaches  its  outlet. 

If  the  first  hundred  feet  from  the  upper  end  of  th« 


HOW    TO  LAY   OUT   A    SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS.  91 

drain  has  a  fall  of  three  inches,  the  next  hundred  feet 
should  not  have  less  than  three  inches,  lest  the  diminished 
velocity  cause  silt,  which  required  the  speed  which  that 
fall  gives  for  its  removal,  to  be  deposited  and  to  choke 
the  tile.  This  defect  of  grade  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  If  the 
second  hundred  feet  has  an  inclination  of  more  than 
three  inches,  (Fig.  18,)  the  removal  of  silt  will  be  even  bet- 
ter secured  than  if  the  fall  continued  at  the  original  rate. 
Some  silt  will  enter  newly  made  drains,  in  spite  of  our 
utmost  care,  but  the  amount  should  be  very  slight,  and 
if  it  is  evenly  deposited  throughout  the  whole  length  of 
the  drain,  it  will  do  no  especial  harm ;  but  it  becomes 
dangerous  when  it  is  accumulated  within  a  short  distance, 
by  a  decreasing  fall,  or  by  a  single  badly  laid  tile,  or  im- 
perfect joint,  which,  by  arresting  the  flow,  may  cause  as 
much  mischief  as  a  defective  grade.  The  use  of  muslin 
bands  practically  prevents  the  entrance  of  silt. 

Owing  to  the  general  conformation  of  the  ground,  it  is 
sometimes  absolutely  necessary  to  adopt  such  a  grade  as 
is  shown  in  Fig.  19, — even  to  the  extent  of  bringing  the 
drain  down  a  rapid  slope,  and  continuing  it  with  the  least 
possible  fall  through  level  ground.  When  such  changes 
must  be  made,  they  should  be  effected  by  angles,  and  not 
by  curves.  In  increasing  the  fall,  curves  in  the  grade  are 
always  advisable,  in  decreasing  it  they  are  always  objec- 
tionable, except  when  the  decreased  fall  is  still  considera- 
ble,—say,  at  least  2  feet  in  100  feet.  The  reason  for  mak- 
ing an  absolute  angle  at  the  point  of  depression  is,  that  it 
enables  us  to  catch  the  silt  at  that  point,  in  a  silt  basin, 
from  which  it  may  be  removed  as  occasion  requires. 

A  Silt  Basin  is  a  chamber,  below  the  grade  of  the  drain, 
into  which  the  water  flows,  becomes  comparatively  quiet, 
and  deposits  its  silt,  instead  of  carrying  it  into  the  tile 
beyond.  It  may  be  large  or  small,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  drain  abovo,  which  it  has  to  accommodate.  Foi 
a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  smallest  tile,  it  may  be  only  a 


92 


DRAINING    FOR   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 


j 

t 

:                                          • 

°> 

! 

FALL.  3.  INCHES 

l~   .  -••- 

rALL=6jNCH^=====i==J 

<;                                 100    FEET                                                                            100     FEET                                    } 

Fig.  17. 

T 

1                           s 

u 
r 

rAUU6.1NCHES=========, 
100    FEET                                 > 

Fig. 

F*LL.  3.  INCHES 

I                                100     FEET                       ~~> 
18. 

1                    '  i 

! 

i 

5 

.,,    R   INCHES 

FALL.5.INCHES 


Fig.  19. 

THBEE   PROFILES   OF   BRAINS,   WITII   DIFFERENT   INCLINATIONS. 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT  A  SYSTEM   OF  DRAINS.  93 

d-inch  tile  placed  on  end  and  sunk  so  as  to  receive  and 
discharge  the  water  at  its  top.  For  a  large  main,  it  may 
be  a  brick  reservoir  with  a  capacity  of  2  or  3  cubic  feet. 
The  position  of  a  silt  basin  is  shown  in  Fig.  19. 

The  quantity  of  silt  which  enters  the  drain  depends  very 
much  on  the  soil.  Compact  clays  yield  very  little,  and 
wet,  running  sands,  (quicksands,)  a  great  deal.  In  a  soil 
of  the  latter  sort,  or  one  having  a  layer  of  running  sand  at 
the  level  of  the  drain,  the  ditch  should  be  excavated  a  lit- 
Je  below  the  grade  of  the  drain,  and  then  filled  to  that 
level  with  a  retentive  clay,  and  rammed  hard.  In  all  cases 
when  the  tile  is  well  laid,  (especially  if  the  collars,  or, 
better,  muslin  bands  are  used,)  and  a  stiff  earth  is  well 
packed  around  the  tile,  silt  will  not  enter  the  drain  to  an 
injurious  extent,  after  a  few  months'  operation  shall 
have  removed  the  loose  particles  about  the  joints,  and 
especially  after  a  few  very  heavy  rains,  which,  if  the  tiles 
are  small,  will  sometimes  wash  them  perfectly  clean, 
although  they  may  have  been  half  filled  with  dirt. 

Vermin, — field  mice,  moles,  etc., — sometimes  make 
their  nests  in  the  tile  and  thus  choke  them,  or,  dying  in 
them,  stop  them  up  with  their  carcasses.  Their  entrance 
should  be  prevented  by  placing  a  coarse  wire  cloth  or 
grating  in  front  of  the  outlets,  which  afford  the  only 
openings  for  their  entrance. 

Roots, — The  roots  of  water-loving  trees — willows,  elms 
and  swamp-maples — will  often  force  their  entrance  into 
the  joints  of  the  tile  and  fill  the  whole  bore  with  masses  of 
fibre  which  entirely  prevent  the  flow  of  water.  Collars 
make  it  more  difficult  for  them  to  enter,  but  even  these 
are  not  a  sure  preventive.  Gisborne  says  : 

"  My  own  experience  as  to  roots,  in  connection  with 
"  deep  pipe  draining,  is  as  follows  :  I  have  never  known 
**  roots  to  obstruct  a  pipe  through  which  there  was  not  a 
"perennial  stream.  The  flow  of  water  in  summer  and 
"  early  autumn  appears  to  furnish  the  attraction.  I  have 


94  DRAINING  FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

"  never  discovered  that  the  roots  of  any  esculent  vegetable 
"  have  obstructed  a  pipe.  The  trees  which,  by  my  own 
"  personal  observation,  I  have  found  to  be  most  danger- 
"  ous,  have  been  red  willow,  black  Italian  poplar,  alder 
"  ash,  and  broad-leaved  elm.  I  have  many  alders  in  close 
"  contiguity  with  important  drains,  and,  though  I  have 
"  never  convicted  one,  I  cannot  doubt  that  they  are  dan- 
"  gerotis.  Oak,  and  black  and  white  thorns,  I  have  not 
"  detected,  nor  do  I  suspect  them.  The  guilty  trees  have 
*'  in  every  instance  been  young  and  free  growing ;  I  have 
"ne»er  convicted  an  adult.  These  remarks  apply  solely 
"  to  my  own  observation,  and  may  of  course  be  much 
"  extended  by  that  of  other  agriculturists.  I  know  an  in- 
"  stance  in  which  a  perennial  spring  of  very  pure  and  (I 
"  believe)  soft  water  is  conveyed  in  socket  pipes  to  a 
"  paper  mill.  Every  junction  of  two  pipes  is  carefully 
"  fortified  with  cement.  The  only  object  of  cover  being 
"protection  from  superficial  injury  and  from  frost,  the 
"  pipes  are  laid  not  far  below  the  sod.  Year  by  year  these 
"  pipes  are  stopped  by  roots.  Trees  are  very  capricious  in 
"  this  matter.  I  was  told  by  the  late  Sir  R.  Peel  that  he 
"  sacrificed  two  young  elm  trees  in  the  park  at  Drayton 
"  Manor  to  a  drain  which  had  been  repeatedly  stopped  by 
"  roots.  The  stoppage  was  nevertheless  repeated,  and 
"  was  then  traced  to  an  elm  tree  far  more  distant  than 
"  those  which  had  been  sacrificed.  Early  in  the  autumn 
"  of  1850  I  completed  the  drainage  of  the  upper  part  of  a 
"  boggy  valley,  lying,  with  ramifications,  at  the  foot  of 
"  marly  banks.  The  main  drains  converge  to  a  common. 
"  outlet,  to  which  are  brought  one  3-inch  pipe  and  three  of  4 
"inches  each.  They  lie  side  by  side,  and  water  flows  pe- 
"  rennially  through  each  of  them.  Near  to  this  outlet  did 
"  grow  a  red  willow.  In  February,  1852, 1  found  the 
"  water  breaking  out  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  about 
"  10  yards  above  the  outlet,  and  was  at  no  loss  for  the 
"  cause,  as  the  roots  of  the  red  willow  showed  themselves 


HOW   TO  LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF  DRAINS.  95 

"  at  the  orifice  of  the  3-inch  and  of  two  of  the  4-inch  pipes, 
u  On  examination  I  found  that  a  root  had  entered  a  joint 
"  between  two  3-inch  pipes,  and  had  traveled  5  yards  to 
"  the  mouth  of  the  drain,  and  9  yards  up  the  stream, 
"  forming  a  continuous  length  of  14  yards.  The  root  which 
'•'  first  entered  had  attained  about  the  size  of  a  lady's  little 
"  finger ;  and  its  ramifications  consisted  of  very  fine  and 
"  almost  silky  fibres,  and  would  have  cut  up  into  half  a 
"  dozen  comfortable  boas.  The  drain  was  completely 
"  stopped.  The  pipes  were  not  in  any  degree  displaced. 
"  Roots  from  the  same  willow  had  passed  over  the  3-inch 
"pipes,  and  had  entered  and  entirely  stopped  the  first 
"  4-inch  drain,  and  had  partially  stopped  the  second.  At 
"  a  distance  of  about  50  yards  a  black  Italian  poplar, 
"  which  stood  on  a  bank  over  a  4-inch  drain,  had  com- 
pletely stopped  it  with  a  bunch  of  roots.  The  whole  of 
"  this  had  been  the  work  of  less  than  18  months,  including 
"  the  depth  of  two  winters.  A  3-inch  branch  of  the  same 
"  system  runs  through  a  little  group  of  black  poplars. 
"  This  drain  conveys  a  full  stream  in  plashes  of  wet,  and 
"  some  water  generally  through  the  winter  months,  but 
"  has  not  a  perennial  flow.  I  have  perceived  no  indica- 
"  tion  that  roots  have  interfered  with  this  drain.  I  draw 
"  no  general  conclusions  from  these  few  facts,  but  they 
"  may  assist  those  who  have  more  extensive  experience  in 
"  drawing  some,  which  may  be  of  use  to  drainers." 

Having  considered  some  of  the  principles  on  which  our 
work  should  be  based,  let  us  now  return  to  the  map  of  the 
field,  and  apply  those  principles  in  planning  the  work  to  be 
done  to  make  it  dry. 

The  Outlet  should  evidently  be  placed  at  the  present 
point  of  exit  of  the  brook  which  runs  from  the  springs, 
collects  the  water  of  the  open  ditches,  and  spreads  over 
the  flat  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  tract,  converting 
it  into  a  swarnp.  Suppose  that,  by  going  some  distance 
into  the  next  field,  we  can  secure  an  outlet  of  3  feet  and 


96  DBAINING   FOE   PliOFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

9  inches  (3.75)  below  the  level  of  the  swampi  and  that  we 
decide  to  allow  3  inches  drop  between  the  bottom  of  the 
tile  at  that  point,  and  the  reduced  level  of  the  brook  to 
secure  the  drain  against  the  accumulation  of  sand,  which 
might  result  from  back  water  in  time  of  heavy  rain.  This 
fixes  the  depth  of  drain  at  the  outlet  at  3|  (3.50)  feet. 

At  that  side  of  the  swamp  which  lies  nearest  to  the 
main  depression  of  the  up-land,  (See  Fig.  21,)  is  the  prop 
er  place  at  which  to  collect  the  water  from  so  much  of 
the  field  as  is  now  drained  by  the  main  brook,  and  at  that 
point  it  will  be  well  to  place  a  silt  basin  or  well,  buiit  up 
to  the  surface,  which  may,  at  any  time,  be  uncovered  for 
an  observation  of  the  working  of  the  drains.  The  land 
between  this  point  and  the  outlet  is  absolutely  level,  re- 
quiring the  necessary  fall  in  the  drain  which  connects  the 
two,  to  be  gained  by  raising  the  upper  end  of  it.  As  tht» 
distance  is  nearly  200  feet,  and  as  it  is  advisable  to  give  a 
fall  at  least  five-tenths  of  a  foot  per  hundred  feet  to  so  im- 
portant an  outlet  as  this,  the  drain  at  the  silt  basin  may 
be  fixed  at  only  2|  feet.  The  basin  being  at  the  foot  of 
a  considerable  rise  in  the  ground,  it  will  be  easy,  within  a 
short  distance  above,  to  carry  the  drains  which  come  to  it 
to  a  depth  of  4  feet, — were  this  not  the  case,  the  fall  be- 
tween the  basin  and  the  outlet  would  have  to  be  very 
much  reduced. 

Main  Drains, — The  valley  through  which  the  brook 
now  runs  is  about  80  feet  wide,  with  a  decided  rise  in  the 
land  at  each  side.  If  one  main  drain  were  laid  in  the  cen- 
ter of  it,  all  of  the  laterals  coming  to  the  main  would  first 
run  down  a  steep  hillside,  and  then  across  a  stretch  of 
more  level  land,  requiring  the  grade  of  each  lateral  to  be 
broken  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  provided  with  a  silt 
basin  to  collect  matters  which  might  be  deposited  when 
the  fall  becomes  less  rapid.  Consequently,  it  is  best  to 
provide  two  mains,  or  collecting  drains,  (A  and  (7,)  one 
lying  at  the  foot  of  each  bill,  when  they  will  receive  the 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM  OF   DRAINS.  97 

laterals  at  their  greatest  fall ;  but,  as  these  are  too  far 
apart  to  completely  drain  the  valley  between  them,  and 
are  located  on  land  higher  than  the  center  of  the  valley,  a 
drain,  (-5,)  should  be  run  up,  midway  between  them. 

The  collecting  drain,  A,  will  receive  the  laterals  from  the 
hill  to  the  west  of  it,  as  far  up  as  the  10-foot  contour  line, 
and,  above  that  point, — running  up  a  branch  of  the  valley, 
— it  will  receive  laterals  from  both  sides.  The  drain, J3, 
may  be  continued  above  the  dividing  point  of  the  valley, 
and  will  act  as  one  of  the  series  of  laterals.  The  drain,  C, 
will  receive  the  laterals  and  sub-mains  from  the  rising 
ground  to  the  east  of  it,  and  from  both  sides  of  the  minor 
valley  which  extends  in  that  direction. 

Most  of  the  valley  which  runs  up  from  the  easterly  side 
of  the  swamp  must  be  drained  independently  by  the  drain 
E,  which  might  be  carried  to  the  silt  basin,  did  not  its 
eontinuation  directly  to  the  outlet  offer  a  shorter  course 
for  the  removal  of  its  water.  This  drain  will  receive  lat- 
erals from  the  hill  bordering  the  southeasterly  side  of  the 
swamp,  and,  higher  up,  from  both  sides  of  the  valley  in 
Khich  it  runs. 

In  laying  out  these  main  drains,  more  attention  should 
be  given  to  placing  them  where  they  will  best  receive  the 
water  of  the  laterals,  and  on  lines  which  offer  a  good  and 
tolerably  uniform  descent,  than  to  their  use  for  the  imme- 
diate drainage  of  the  'land  through  which  they  pass. 
Afterward,  in  laying  out  the  laterals,  the  use  of  these  lines 
as  local  drains  should,  of  course,  be  duly  considered. 

The  Lateral  Drains  should  next  receive  attention,  and 
in  their  location  and  arrangement  the  following  rules 
should  be  observed : 

1st.  They  should  run  down  the  steepest  descent  of  the 
land. 

2d.  They  should  be  placed  at  intervals  proportionate  to 
their  depth ;— if  4  feet  deep,  at  40  feet  intervals;  if  3  feet 
deep,  at  20  feet  intervals. 
6 


DRAINING    FOB    PROFIT    AND    HEALTH. 


Fig.  20.— MAP  WITH  DRAINS   AND  CONTOUR  LINES. 


HOW   TO    LAY    OUT   A    8TSTKM    OF    DRAINS.  99 

3d.  They  should,  as  nearly  as  possible,  run  parallel  to 
each  other. 

On  land  of  perfectly  uniform  character,  (all  sloping  in 
the  same  direction,)  all  of  these  requirements  may  be 
complied  with,  but  on  irregular  land  it  becomes  constantly 
necessary  to  make  a  compromise  between  them.  Drains 
running  do\vn  the  line  of  steepest  descent  cannot  be  par- 
allel,— and,  consequently,  the  intervals  between  them  can- 
not be  always  the  same ;  those  which  are  farther  apart  at 
one  end  than  at  the  other  cannot  be  always  of  a  depth 
exactly  proportionate  to  their  intervals. 

In  the  adjustment  of  the  lines,  so  as  to  conform  as  near- 
ly to  these  requirements  as  the  shape  of  the  ground  will 
allow,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of  much  skill,  and  on 
such  adjustment  depend,  in  a  great  degree,  the  success  and 
economy  of  the  -work.  Remembering  that  on  the  map,  the 
line  of  steepest  descent  is  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  con- 
tour lines  of  the  land,  it  will  be  profitable  to  study  care- 
fully the  system  of  drains  first  laid  out,  erasing  and  mak- 
ing alterations  wherever  it  is  found  possible  to  simplify 
the  arrangement. 

Strictly  speaking,  all  angles  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
wasteful,  because,  if  two  parallel  drains  will  suffice  to  drain 
the  land  between  them,  no  better  drainage  will  be  effected 
by  a  third  drain  running  across  that  land.  Furthermore 
the  angles  are  practically  supplied  with  drains  at  less  in 
tervals  than  are  required, — for  instance,  at  G  7  a  on  the 
map  the  triangles  included  within  the  dotted  line  «,  y, 
will  be  doubly  drained.  So,  also,  if  any  point  of  a 
4-foot  drain  will  drain  the  land  within  20  feet  of  it, 
the  land  included  within  the  dotted  line  forming  a 
semi-circle  about  the  point  (714,  might  drain  into  the 
end  of  the  lateral,  and  it  no  more  needs  the  action  of 
the  main  drain  than  does  that  which  lies  between  the 
laterals.  Of  course,  angles  and  connecting  lines  are  in- 
dispensable, except  where  the  laterals  can  run  inde 


100  DRAINING  FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

pendently  across  the  entire  field,  and  discharge  beyond  it 
The  longer  the  laterals  can  be  made,  and  the  more  angles 
can  be  avoided,  the  more  economical  will  the  arrangement 
be  ;  and,  until  the  arrangement  of  the  lines  has  been  made 
as  nearly  perfect  as  possible,  the  time  of  the  drainer  can 
bo  in  no  way  so  profitably  spent  as  in  amending  his  plan. 

The  series  of  laterals  which  discharge  through,  the 
mains  A,  (7,  D  and  E,  on  the  accompanying  map,  have 
been  very  carefully  considered,  and  are  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  the  reader,  in  illustration  of  what  has 
been  said  above. 

At  one  point,  just  above  the  middle  of  the  east  side  of 
the  field,  the  laterals  are  placed  at  a  general  distance  of 
20  feet,  because,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig.  4,  a 
ledge  of  rock,  underground,  will  prevent  their  being  made 
more  than  3  feet  deep. 

The  line  from  H  to  7",  (Fig.  20,)  at  the  north  side  of 
the  field,  connecting  the  heads  of  the  laterals,  is  to  be  a 
stone  and  tile  drain,  such  as  is  described  on  page  60,  in- 
tended to  collect  the  water  which  follows  the  surface  of 
the  lock.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

The  swamp  is  to  be  drained  by  itself,  by  means  of  two 
series  of  laterals  discharging  into  the  main  lines  .Fand  <?, 
which  discharge  at  the  outlet,  by  the  side  of  the  main 
drain  from  the  silt-basin.  By  this  arrangement,  these 
laterals,  especially  at  the  north  side  of  the  swamp,  being 
accurately  laid,  with  very  slight  inclinations,  can  be  placed 
more  deeply  than  if  they  ran  in  an  east  and  west  direction, 
and  discharged  into  the  main,  which  lias  a  greater  inclina- 
tion, and  is  only  two  and  a  half  feet  deep  at  the  basin. 
Being  3i  (3.50)  feet  deep  at  the  outlet,  they  may 
be  madt  fully  3  feet  deep  at  their  upper  ends,  and,  being 
only  20  feet  apart,  they  will  drain  the  land  as  well  as  is 
possible.  The  drains  being  now  laid  out,  over  the  whole 
Geld,  the  next  thing  to  be  attended  to  is 


HOW   TO   LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OP   DRAINS.  10\ 

The  Ordering  of  the  Tile, — The  main  line  from  the  outlet 
op  to  the  silt-basin,  should  be  of  3i-inch  tiles,  of  which 
about  190  feet  will  be  required.  The  main  drain  A  should 
be  laid  with  2^-inch  tiles  to  the  point  marked  m,  near  its 
upper  end,  as  the  lateral  entering  there  carries  the  water 
of  a  spring,  which  is  supposed  to  fill  a  l^-inch  tile.  The 
length  of  this  drain,  from  the  silt-basin  to  that  point  is 
575  feet.  The  main  drain  C  will  require  &f  inch  tiles  from 
the  silt-basin  to  the  junction  with  the  lateral,  which  is 
marked  C  10,  above  which  point  there  is  about  1,700  feet 
of  drain  discharging  into  it,  a_  portion  of  which,  being  a 
stone-and-tile  drain  at  the  foot  of  a  rock,  may  be  supposed 
to  receive  more  water  than  that  which  lies  under  the  rest 
of  the  land  ; — distance  450  feet.  The  main  drain  E  requires 
2^-inch  tiles  from  the  outlet  to  the  point  marked  o,  a  dis- 
tance of  380  feet.  This  tile  will,  in  addition  to  its  other 
work,  carry  as  much  water  from  the  spring,  on  the  line  of 
its  fourth  lateral,  as  would  fill  a  1^-inch  pipe.* 

The  length  of  the  main  drains  above  the  points  indi- 
cated, and  of  all  the  laterals,  amounts  to  about  12,250  feet 
These  all  require  1^-inch  tiles. 

Allowing  about  five  per  cent,  for  breakage,  the  order  in 
round  numbers,  will  be  as  follows :  f 

3|-inch  round  tiles 200  feet. 

2£    «        "       " 1,500    " 

1£    «        "       «« 13,000    " 

3£     "        Collars 1,600 

2*     "  "          ......     13,250 

*If  the  springs,  when  running  at  their  greatest  volume,  be  found  to 
require  more  than  1^-inch  tiles,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
increase. 

t  Owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  ground,  and  the  necessity  foi  placing 
some  of  the  drains  at  narrower  intervals,  the  total  length  of  tile  exceeds 
by  nearly  50  per  cent,  what  would  be  required  if  it  had  a  uniform  slope, 
and  required  no  collecting  drains.  It  is  much  greater  than  will  be  re- 
quired in  any  ordinary  case,  as  a  very  irregular  surfac».  oao  oecn  adopted 
here  for  purposes  of  illustration. 


102  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

Order,  also,  25  6-inch  sole-tiles,  to  be  used  in  making 
email  silt-basins. 

It  should  be  arranged  to  have  the  tiles  all  on  the  ground 
before  the  work  of  ditching  commences,  so  that  there  may 
be  no  delay  and  consequent  danger  to  the  stability  of  the 
banks  of  the  ditches,  while  waiting  for  them  to  arrive.  As 
has  been  before  stated,  it  should  be  especially  agreed  with 
the  tile-maker,  at  the  time  of  making  the  contract,  that 
every  tile  should  be  perfect ; — of  uniform  shape,  and 
neither  too  much  nor  too  little  burned. 

Staking  Out, — Due  consideration  having  been  given  to 
such  preliminaries  as  are  connected  with  the  mapping  of 
the  ground,  and  the  arrangement,  on  paper,  of  the  drains 
to  be  made,  the  drainer  may  now  return  to  his  field,  and, 
while  awaiting  the  arrival  of  his  tiles,  make  the  necessary 
preparation  for  the  work  to  be  done.  Ihe  first  step  is  to 
fix  certain  prominent  points,  which  will  serve  to  connect 
the  map  with  the  field,  by  actual  measurements,  and  this 
will  very  easily  be  done  by  the  aid  of  the  stakes  which 
are  still  standing  at  the  intersections  of  the  50-foot  lines, 
which  were  used  in  the  preliminary  levelling. 

Commencing  at  the  southwest  corner  of  th.e  field,  and 
measuring  toward  the  east  a  distance  of  34  feet,  set  a  pole 
to  indicate  the  position  of  the  outlet.  Next,  mark  the 
center  of  the  silt-basin  at  the  proper  point,  which  will  be 
found  by  measuring  184  feet  up  the  western  boundary,  and 
thence  toward  the  east  96  feet,  on  a  line  parallel  with  the 
nearest  row  of  50-foot  stakes.  Then,  in  like  manner,  fix 
the  points  (71,  (76,  C  9,  G  10,  and  G  17,  and  the  angles 
of  the  other  main  lines,  marking  the  stakes,  when  placed, 
to  correspond  with  the  same  points  on  the  map.  Then 
stake  the  angles  and  the  upper  ends  of  thp  laterals,  and 
mark  these  stakes  to  correspond  with  the  map. 

It  will  greatly  facilitate  this  operation,  if  the  plan  of 
the  drains  which  is  used  in  the  field,  from  which  the  hori 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT   A  SYSTEM   OF  DEA1N8.  103 

rental  lines  should  be  omitted,  have  the  intersecting  50- 
foot  lines  drawn  upon  it,  so  that  the  measurements  may 
be  made  from  the  nearest  points  of  intersection.* 

Having  staked  these  guiding  points  of  the  drains,  it  is 
advisable  to  remove  all  of  the  50-foot  stakes,  as  these  are 
of  no  further  use,  and  would  only  cause  confusion.  It 
will  now  be  easy  to  set  the  remaining  stakes, — placing  one 
at  every  50  feet  of  the  laterals,  and  at  the  intersections 
of  all  the  lines. 

A  system  for  marking  the  stakes  is  indicated  on  the 
map,  (in  the  G  series  of  drains,)  which,  to  avoid  the  con- 
fusion which  would  result  from  too  much  detail  on  such  a 
small  scale,  has  been  carried  only  to  the  extent  necessary 
tor  illustration.  The  stakes  of  the  line  G  are  marked  (71, 
(72,  (73,  etc.  The  stakes  of  the  sub-main  (77,  are  marked 
(77a,  (77*,  (77c,  etc.  The  stakes  of  the  lateral  which 
enters  this  drain  at  (77a,  are  marked  £J?»  £1*  ^  etc. 
etc.  This  system,  which  connects  the  lettering  of  each 
lateral  with  its  own  sub-main  and  main,  is  perfectly  sim 
pie,  and  avoids  the  possibility  of  confusion.  The  position 
of  the  stakes  should  all  be  lettered  on  the  map,  at  the 
original  drawing,  and  the  same  designating  marks  put  on 
the  stakes  in  the  field,  as  soon  as  set. 

Grade  Stakes,  (pegs  about  8  or  10  inches  long,)  should 
be  placed  close  at  the  sides  of  the  marked  stakes,  and 
driven  nearly  their  full  length  into  the  ground.  The  tops 
of  these  stakes  furnish  fixed  points  of  elevation  from 
which  to  take  the  measurements,  and  to  make  the  compu- 
tations necessary  to  fix  the  depth  of  the  drain  at  each 
stake.  If  the  measurements  were  taken  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  a  slight  change  of  position  in  placing  the 
instrument,  would  often  make  a  difference  of  some  inches 
in  the  depth  of  the  drain. 

*Thc  stakes  used  may  be  18  inches  long,  and  driven  one  half  of  their 
length  into  the  ground.  They  should  have  one  side  sufficiently  smooth 
to  he  dist'nctly  marked  with  red  chalk. 


104  DBAINING   FOB  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

Taking  the  Levels.— For  accurate  work,  it  is  necessarj 
to  ascertain  the  comparative  levels  of  the  tops  of  all  of 
the  grade  stakes ;  or  the  distance  of  each  one  of  them 
below  an  imaginary  horizontal  plane.  This  plane,  (in  which 
we  use  only  such  lines  as  are  directly  above  the  drains,) 
may  be  called  the  "  Datum  Line."  Its  elevation  should 
be  such  that  it  will  be  above  the  highest  part  of  the  land, 
and,  for  convenience,  it  is  fixed  at  the  elevation  of  the  lev- 
elling instrument  when  it  is  so  placed  as  to  look  over  the 
highest  part  of  the  field. 

Levelling  Instruments  are  of  various  kinds.  The  best 
for  the  work  in  hand,  is  the  common  railroad  level,  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  This  is  supported  on  three  legs,  which 
bring  it  to  about  the  level  of  the  eye.  Its  essential  parta 
are  a  telescope,  which  has  two  cross-hairs  intersecting  each 
other  in  the  line  of  sight,  and  which  may  be  turned  on  its 
pivot  toward  any  point  of  the  horizon;  a  bubble  glass 
placed  exactly  parallel  to  the  line  of  sight,  and  firmly 
secured  in  its  position  so  as  to  turn  with  the  telescope ; 
and  an  apparatus  for  raising  or  depressing  any  side  of  the 
instrument  by  means  of  set-screws.  The  instrument  is 
firmly  screwed  to  the  tripod,  and  placed  at  a  point  conve- 
nient for  looking  over  a  considerable  part  of  the  highest 
land.  By  the  use  of  the  set-screws,  the  plane  in  which  the 
instrument  revolves  is  brought  to  a  level,  so  that  in  what- 
ever direction  the  instrument  is  pointed,  the  bubble  will  be 
in  the  center  of  the  glass.  The  line  of  sight,  whichever 
way  it  is  turned,  is  now  in  our  imaginary  plane.  A  con- 
venient position  for  the  instrument  in  the  field  under  con 
sideration,  would  be  at  the  point,  east  of  the  center,  marked 
K,  which  is  about  3  feet  below  the  level  of  the  highest 
part  of  the  ground.  The  telescope  should  stand  about  5 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  directly  under  it. 

The  Levelling-Rod,  (See  Fig.  7,)  is>  usually  12  feet  long, 
is  divided  into  feet  and  hundredth^  rf  a  foot,  and  has  a 


HOW    TO   LAY    OUT   A    SYSTEM    OF   DRAINS. 


105 


movable  target  which  may  be  placed  at  any  part  of  itb 
entire  length.  This  is  carried  by  an  attendant,  who  holds 
it  perpendicularly  on  the  top  of  the  grade-stake,  while  the 
operator,  looking  through  the  telescope,  directs  him  to 
move  the  target  up  and  down  until  its  center  is  exactly  in 
'he  line  of  sight.  The  attendant  then  reads  the  elevation, 
and  the  operator  records  it  as  the  distance  below  the 
datum-line  of  the  top  of  the  grade-stake.  For  conveni- 
ence, the  letterings  of  the  stakes  should  be  systematically 
entered  in  a  small  field  book,  before  the  work  commences, 
and  this  should  be  accompanied  by  such  a  sketch  of  the 
plan  as  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  location  of  the  lines  on 
the  ground. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  field  book  for  the  main 
drain  (7,  with  the  levels  recorded : 


LETTERING  OF  THE  STAKE. 

DEPTH  FROM  DATUM  LINK. 

Silt  Basin 

18.30 

C    1 

15.44 

C    2 

14.36 

C    3 

12.85 

C    4 

12.18 

C    5 

11.79 

8? 

11.69 
11.55 

C    8 

11.37 

C    9 

11.06 

CIO 

8.94 

Oil 

8.52 

C  13 

7.86 

C  13 

7.70 

C  14 
C  15 

7.39 
7.06 

C  16 

6.73 

C  17 

5.90 

The  levelling  should  be  continued  in  this  manner,  until 
the  grades  of  all  the  points  are  recorded  in  the  field  book. 

If,  from  too  great  depression  of  the  lower  parts  of  the 

field,  or  too  great  distances  for  observation,  it  becomes 

necessary  to  take  up  a  new  position  with  the  instrument, 

the  new  level  should  be  connected,  by  measurement,  with 

5* 


50  <- —18.20— -» 

r go.  70 


106 


HOW  TO  LAY   OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF   DKA1KS.  107 

the  old  one,  and  the  new  observations  should  be  computed 
to  the  original  plane. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  these  levels  should  be  noted  on 
the  map, — they  are  needed  only  for  computing  the  depth 
of  cutting,  and  if  entered  on  the  map,  might  be  mistaken 
for  the  figures  indicating  the  depth,  which  it  is  more  irn 
pcrtant  to  have  recorded  in  their  proper  positions,  for  con- 
venience of  reference  during  the  work. 

The  Depth  and  Grade  of  the  Drains,— Having  now 
staked  out  the  lines  upon  the  land,  and  ascertained  and 
recorded  the  elevations  at  the  different  stakes,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  determine  at  what  depth  the  tile  shall  be 
placed  at  each  point,  so  as  to  give  the  proper  fall  to  each 
line,  and  to  bring  all  of  the  lines  of  the  system  into  accord. 
As  the  simplest  means  of  illustrating  the  principle  on 
which  this  work  should  be  done,  it  will  be  convenient  to 
go  through  with  the  process  with  reference  to  the  main 
drain  (7,  of  the  plan  under  consideration.  A  profile  of  this 
line  is  shown  in  Fig.  21,  where  the  line  is  broken  at  stake 
No.  7,  and  continued  in  the  lower  section  of  the  diagram. 
The  topmost  line,  from  "  Silt  Basin  "  to  "  17,"  is  the  hori- 
zontal datum-line.  The  numbers  above  the  vertical  lines  in- 
dicate the  stakes  ;  the  figures  in  brackets  between  these,  the 
number  of  feet  between  the  stakes  ;  and  the  heavy  figures 
at  the  left  of  the  vertical  lines,  the  recorded  measurements 
of  depth  from  the  datum-line  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
which  is  indicated  by  the  irregular  line  next  below  the 
datum-line.  The  vertical  measurements  are,  of  course, 
very  much  exaggerated,  to  make  the  profile  more  marked, 
but  they  are  in  the  proper  relation  to  each  other. 

The  depth  at  the  silt-basin  is  fixed  at  2£  feet  (2.50.) 
The  rise  is  rapid  to  stake  3,  very  slight  from  there  to  stake 
7,  very  rapid  from  there  to  stake  10,  a  little  less  rapid  from 
there  to  stake  11,  and  still  less  rapid  from  there  to 
stake  17. 

To  establish  the  grade  by  the  profile  alone,  the  proper 


108 


DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 


course  would  be  to  fix  the  depth  at  the  stakes  at  which 
the  inclination  is  to  be  changed,  to  draw  straight  lines  be- 
tween the  points  thus  found,  and  then  to  measure  the 
vertical  distance  from  these  lines  to  the  line  indicating  the 
surface  of  the  ground  at  the  different  stakes  ;  thus,  fixing 
the  depth  at  stake  3,  at  4  feet  and  13  hundredths,*  the  line 
drawn  from  that  point  to  the  depth  of  2.50,  at  the  silt- 
basin,  will  be  3  feet  and  62  hundredths  (3.62)  below  stake 
1,  and  3  feet  and  92  hundredths  (3.92)  below  stake  2.  At 
stake  7  it  is  necessary  to  go  sufficiently  deep  to  pass  from  7 
to  10,  without  coming  too  near  the  surface  at  9,  which  is  at 
the  foot  of  a  steep  ascent.  A  line  drawn  straight  from 
4.59  feet  below  stake  10  to  4.17  feet  at  stake  17,  would  be 
unnecessarily  deep  at  11,  12,  13,  and  14;  and,  conse- 
quently it  is  better  to  rise  to  4.19  feet  at  11.  So  far  as 
this  part  of  the  drain  is  concerned,  it  would  be  well  to 
continue  the  same  rise  to  12,  but,  in  doing  so,  we  would 
come  too  near  the  surface  at  13,  14,  and  15  ;  or  must  con- 
siderably depress  the  line  at  16,  which  would  either  make 
a  bad  break  in  the  fall  at  that  point,  or  carry  the  drain 
too  deep  at  17. 

By  the  arrangement  adopted,  the  grade  is  broken  at  3, 
7, 10,  and  11.  Between  these  points,  it  is  a  straight  line,  with 
the  rate  of  fall  indicated  in  the  following  table,  which 
commences  at  the  upper  end  of  the  drain  and  proceeds  to- 
ward its  outlet : 


FBOM    n 
STAKE,  Ul  PTH- 

8r2^,    »««"• 

DlSTAXC*. 

TOTAL  FALL. 

RATE  OP  FALL 
PER  100  FKET. 

No.  17..  4.17  feet. 
No.  11..  4.19    " 
No.  10..  4.59   " 
No.    7..4.4T    " 
No.    3..  4.13   " 

No.  11..  4  19  feet. 
No.  10..  4.59    " 
No     "..4.47   " 
No.    d.,4.13    " 
S.  Basin2.25    " 

24«  feet. 
41     " 
91     " 
173     " 
186     " 

2.64  feet. 
82     " 
2.49     " 
9fi     ** 
3.47     " 

1.09  feet. 
2.00     " 
2.83     " 
56     " 

1.87     " 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  fall  becomes  more  rapid  as  we 
ascend  from  stake  7,  but  below  this  point  it  is  very  much 


*  The  depth  of  4.13,  in  Fig.  21,  as  well  as  the  other  depths  at  the  points 
at  which  the  grade  changes,  happen  to  be  those  found  by  the  computation 
as  hereafter  described,  ard  they  are  used  here  fcr  illustration. 


HOW   TO    LAY    OUT  A   SYSTEM   OF   DRAINS. 


109 


reduced,  so  much  as  to  make  it  very  likely  that  silt  will 
be  deposited,  (see  page  91),  and  the  drain,  thereby,  ob- 
structed. To  provide  against  this,  a  silt-basia  must  be 
placed  at  this  point  which  will  collect  the  silt  and  prevent 
its  entrance  into  the  more  nearly  level  tile  below.  The 
construction  of  this  silt-basin  is  more  particularly  des- 
cribed in  the  next  chapter.  From  stake  7  to  the  main  silt- 
basin  the  fall  is  such  that  the  drain  will  clear  itself. 

The  drawing  of  regular  profiles,  for  the  more  imporant 
drains,  will  be  useful  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  be- 
ginner familiar  with  the  method  of  grading,  and  with  the 
principles  on  which  the ^rade  and  depth  are  computed; 
and  sometimes,  in  passing  over  very  irregular  surfaces,  this 
method  will  enable  even  a  skilled  drainer  to  hit  upon  the 
best  adjustment  in  less  time  than  by  computation.  Ordi- 
narily, however,  the  form  of  computation  given  in  the  fol- 
jowing  table,  which  refers  to  the  same  drain,  (  (7,)  will  be 
•pore  expeditious,  and  its  results  are  mathematically  more 
torrect.* 


No.  of 
Stake. 

Dittance 

11'  hri'fn, 
Stakes. 

Fall.  Feet  and 
Decimals. 

Depth/ram, 
Datum  IAM. 

Depth 
of 
Drain. 

Remarks. 

PerlOO  BeCion 
Feet.   \  Stakes. 

To 
Drain. 

ToSur- 
face. 

Silt  Basin. 

11 

C.    4. 
C.    5. 
C.    «. 

8:  10: 

C.  11. 

8:11: 

C.  14. 
C.  15. 

C.  16. 
C.  17. 

3* 

65 
51 
43 

47 
82 
41 
12 
88 
41 
41 
41 
41 

2  **• 

do 
.56  ' 
do. 

do. 
do. 
2.83 
do. 

2.00°' 
1.09 
do. 
do. 

1.64  ft. 
.78  '* 

20.70  ft. 

I'.I.O'i" 
18.2S  " 

18.20  ft. 

15.41  " 

1  1.:;<;  " 

2  50  ft. 
3.48" 
3.83  " 

1  Silt-Basin  here. 
1     Made  deep  at  New. 
[7  and  10  to  paw  a  <le- 
J  pression  of  the  •nr- 
face  at  No.  9. 

J2S 
.24 

.26 

^4 
.99 
.82 
.44 
.44 
,44 

16.70  " 

in.  it;  - 
n;.2'i" 

Hi.  02  " 

u.  s»;  •' 

14.52  " 
13  53  " 

12".27  " 

KMS" 

11.19" 

11  69" 

ii.f>r>" 
11.37" 
ll.Oii" 
8  94" 
8.5'<>  " 
7.86  " 

4.52" 
467" 
4.51" 
4  47" 
3.49  " 
3.4C  " 
4.59  " 
4.19" 
4.41" 

|}|» 

7.30  " 

ft: 

41 
41 

do. 
do. 

.44 
M 

10  51  " 

10.07  " 

6.73  " 
5.90" 

3  88  " 
4.17" 

*  The  figures  in  this  table,  as  well  as  in  the  next  preceding  one,  ar« 
adopted  for  the  published  profile  of  drain  C1,  Fig.  21,  to  avoid  confusion. 
ID  ordinary  cases,  the  points  which  are  fixed  as  the  basis  of  the  compu- 
tation are  given  in  round  numbers; — for  instance,  the  depth  at  03  would 
be  assumed  to  be  4.10  or  4.^0,  instead  of  4.13.  The  fraction!  given  in  the 
table,  and  in  Fig.  21,  arise  frcm  the  fact  that  the  decimals  are  not  abs» 
lately  correct,  being  carried  out  only  for  two  figures. 


110  DRAINING    FOB  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

NOTE. — The  method  of  making  the  foregoing  computa- 
tion is  this ; 

1st.  Enter  the  lettering  of  the  stakes  in  the  first  column,  commencing 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  drain. 

2d.  Enter  the  distances  between  each  two  stakes  in  the  second  col- 
umn, placing  the  measurement  on  the  line  with  the  number  of  th« 
\jiper  ^take  t  the  two. 

3d  la  the  next  to  the  last  column  enter,  on  tlie  line  with  each  stake, 
ts  depth  below  the  datum-line,  as  recorded  in  the  field  book  of  levels, 
(See  page  105.) 

4th  On  the  tirst  line  of  the  last  column,  place  the  depth  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  drain,  (this  is  established  by  the  grade  of  the  main  or  other 
outlet  at  which  it  discharges.) 

5th.  Add  this  depth  to  the  first  number  of  the  line  next  preceding  it, 
and  enter  the  sum  obtained  on  the  first  line  of  the  fifth  column,  as  the 
depth  of  the  drain  below  the  datum-line. 

6th.  Having  reference  to  the  grade  of  the  surface,  (as  shown  by  the 
figures  in  the  sixth  column,)  as  well  as  to  any  necessity  for  placing  the 
drain  at  certain  depths  at  certain  places,  enter  the  desired  depth,  in  pencil, 
in  the  last  column,  opposite  the  stakes  marking  those  places.  Then  add 
together  this  depth  and  the  corresponding  surf  ice  measurement  in  the 
column  next  preceding,  and  enter  the  sum,  in  pencil,  in  the  fifth  column, 
as  the  depth  from  the  datum-line  to  the  desired  position  of  the  drain. 
(In  the  example  in  baud,  these  points  are  at  Nos.  3,  7, 10,  11,  and  17.) 

7th.  Subtract  the  second  amount  in  the  fifth  column  from  the  first 
amount  for  the  total  fall  between  the  two  points— in  the  example,  ''3" 
from  "Silt-Basin."  Divide  this  total  fall,  (in  feet  and  huudredths,)  by 
one  hundredth  of  the  total  number  of  feet  between  them.  The  result 
will  be  the  rate  of  fall  per  100  feet,  and  this  should  be  entered,  in  the 
third  column,  opposite  each  of  the  intermediate  distances  between  the 
points. 

iple:        Depth  of  the  Drain  at  the  Silt-Basin 20.45  feet 

"     "    "       "      "     Stake  No.  3 16.98   •* 

Difference 3.47   •» 

Dtotance  between  thj  two 188.—   u 

1  8  6)  3.4  7  (1.8  6  5  or  1.8  7 
186 
1610 
1488 
-T2T6 
1116 
1040 
930 

ITT 


HOW  TO   LAY   OUT    A.   SYSTEM   OF   DBAIN8.  Ill 

8th.  Multiply  the  numbers  of  the  second  column  by  those  of  the  third 
rod  divide  the  product  by  100.  The  result  will  be  the  amount  of  fall  be- 
tween  the  stakes,  (fourth  column.)— Example:  1.8?  x 82 =153-*- 100 =1.53. 

9th.  Subtract  the  first  number  of  the  fourth  column  from  the  first 
number  of  the  fifth  column,  (on  the  line  above  it,)  and  place  the  re- 
mainder on  the  next  line  of  the  fifth  column. — Example:  20.70—1.64= 
19.06. 

Then,  from  this  new  amount,  subtract  the  second  number  of  the 
fourth  column,  for  the  next  number  of  the  fifth,  and  so  on,  until,  in 
place  of  the  entry  in  pencil,  (Stake  3,)  we  place  the  exact  result  of  the 
computation. 

Proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  next  interval, — 3  to  7. 

10th.  Subtract  the  numbers  in  the  sixth  column  from  those  in  the 
fifth,  and  the  remainders  will  be  the  depths  to  be  entered  in  the  last. 

Under  the  head  of  "Remarks,"  note  any  peculiarity  of  the  drain 
which  may  require  attention  in  the  field. 

>  The  main  lines  A,  D,  and  E,  and  the  drain  JS,  should 
next  be  graded  on  the  plan  set  forth  for  (7,  and  their  lat- 
erals, all  of  which  have  considerable  fall,  and  being  all  so 
steep  as  not  to  require  silt-basins  at  any  point, — can,  by 
a  very  simple  application  of  the  foregoing  principles,  be 
adjusted  at  the  proper  depths.  In  grading  the  stone  and 
tile  drain,  (H,  /,)  it  is  only  necessary  to  adopt  the  depth  of 
the  last  stakes  of  the  laterals,  with  which  it  is  connected, 
as  it  is  immaterial  in  which  direction  the  water  flows.  The 
ends  of  this  drain, — from  H  to  the  head  of  the  drain  (710, 
and  from  /to  the  head  of  (717, — should,  of  course,  have  a 
decided  fall  toward  the  drains. 

The  laterals  which  are  placed  at  intervals  of  20  feet, 
over  the  underground  rock  on  the  east  side  of  the  field, 
should  be  continued  at  a  depth  of  about  3  feet  for  nearly 
their  whole  length,  dropping  in  a  distance  of  8  or  10  feet 
at  their  lower  ends  to  the  top  of  the  tile  of  the  main.  The 
intervals  between  the  lower  ends  of  (77e,  Cld,  and  (770, 
being  considerably  more  than  20  feet,  the  drains  may  be 
gradually  deepened,  throughout  their  whole  length  from  3 
feet  at  the  upper  ends  to  the  depth  of  the  top  of  the  main 
at  the  lower  ends. 

The  main  drains  F  and  G,  being  laid  in  flat  land,  theii 


112  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

outlets  being  fixed  at  a  depth  of  3.50,  (the  floor  of  the 
main  outlet,)  and  it  being  necessary  to  have  them  as  deep 
as  possible  throughout  their  entire  length,  should  be 
graded  with  great  care  on  the  least  admissible  fall.  This, 
in  ordinary  agricultural  drainage,  may  be  fixed  at  .25,  or 
3  inches,  per  100  feet.  Their  laterals  should  commence 
with  the  top  of  their  £  tile  even  with  the  top  of  the  2£  col- 
lar of  the  main, — or  .15  higher  than  the  grade  of  the  main, 
— and  rise,  at  a  uniform  inclination  of  .25,  to  the  upper  end. 

Having  now  computed  the  depth  at  which  the  tile  is  to 
lie,  at  each  stake,  and  entered  it  on  the  map,  we  are  ready 
to  mark  these  depths  on  their  respective  stakes  in  the  field, 
when  the  preliminary  engineering  of  the  work  will  be 
completed. 

It  has  been  deemed  advisable  in  this  chapter  to  consider 
the  smallest  details  of  the  work  of  the  draining  engineer. 
Those  who  intend  to  drain  in  the  best  manner  will  find 
such  details  important.  Those  who  propose  to  do  their 
work  less  thoroughly,  may  still  be  guided  by  the  princi- 
ples on  which  they  are  based.  Any  person  who  will 
take  the  pains  to  mature  the  plans  of  his  work  as  closely 
as  has  been  here  recommended,  will  as  a  consequence 
sommence  his  operations  in  the  field  much  more  under- 
standingly.  The  advantage  of  having  everything  decided 
beforehand, — so  that  the  workmen  need  not  be  delayed  for 
want  of  sufficient  directions,  and  of  making,  on  the  map, 
such  alterations  as  would  have  appeared  necessary  in  the 
field,  thus  saving  the  cost  of  cutting  ditches  in  the  wrong 
places,  will  well  repay  the  work  of  the  evenings  of  • 
whole  winter, 


CHAPTER  IV. 


HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    DRAINS.* 

Kno\\  ing,  now,  precisely  what  is  to  be  done ;  having 
the  lines  all  staked  out,  and  the  stakes  so  marked  as  to  be 
clearly  designated ;  knowing  the  precise  depth  at  which 
the  drain  is  to  be  laid,  at  every  point ;  having  the  requisite 
tiles  on  the  ground,  and  thoroughly  inspected,  the  operator 
is  prepared  to  commence  actual  work. 

He  should  determine  how  many  men  he  will  employ, 
and  what  tools  they  will  require  to  work  to  advantage.  It 
n*ay  be  best  that  the  work  be  done  by  two  or  three 
men,  or  it  may  be  advisable  to  employ  as  many  as  can 
work  without  interfering  with  each  other.  In  most  cases, — 
especially  where  there  is  much  water  to  contend  with, — the 
latter  course  will  be  the  most  economical,  as  the  ditches 
will  not  be  so  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  softening  of  their 
bottoms,  and  the  caving  in  of  their  sides. 

The  Tools  Required  are  a  subsoil  plow,  two  garden 
lines,  spades,  shovels,  and  picks  ;  narrow  finishing  spades, 
a  finishing  scoop,  a  tile  pick,  a  scraper  for  filling  the 
ditches,  a  heavy  wooden  maul  for  compacting  the  bottom 
filling,  half  a  dozen  boning-rods,  a  measuring  rod,  and  a 
plumb  rod.  These  should  all  be  on  hand  at  the  outset,  so 
that  no  delay  in  the  work  may  result  from  the  want  ol 
them. 

Writers  on  drainage,  almost  without  exception,  recom- 
mend the  use  of  elaborate  sets  of  tools  which  are  intended 

*  The  instructions  given  in  this  Chapter  are  somewhat  modified  by  newel 
processes,  which  are  described  in  the  Supplemental  Chapters,  especially  Chap- 
ter XIII.  These  should  be  well  noted.-Ctfcte  to  2d  edition.) 


114 


DRAINING    FOR   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 


Flat  Spades  of 
various  lengths 
and  widths,  Bill- 
necked  Scoop  (.4) ; 
Tile  -  layer  (B); 
Pick-axe  (C);  and 
Scoop  Spades,  and 
Shovel. 


Fig.  22.— SET  OF  TOOLS. 


HOW  TO   MAKE  THE   DRAINS.  115 

foi  cutting  very  narrow  ditches, — only  wide  enough  at  the 
bottom  to  admit  the  tile,  and  not  allowing  the  workmen 
to  stand  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  A  set  of  these  toola 
is  shown  in  Fig.  22. 

Possibly  there  may  be  soils  in  which  these  implements, 
in  the  hands  of  men  skilled  in  their  use,  could  be  employed 
with  economy,  but  they  are  very  rare,  and  it  is  not  be- 
lieved to  be  possible  with  unskilled  laborers  to  regulate 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  so  accurately  as  is  advisable,  un- 
less the  workman  can  stand  directly  upon  it,  cutting  it 
more  smoothly  than  he  could  if  the  point  of  his  tool  were 
a  foot  or  more  below  the  level  on  which  he  stands. 

On  this  subject,  Mr.  J.  Bailey  Denton,  one  of  the  first 
draining  engineers  of  Great  Britain,  in  a  letter  to  Judge 
French,  says : 

"  As  to  tools,  it  is  the  same  with  them  as  it  is  with  the 
u  art  of  draining  itself, — too  much  rule  and  too  much  draw- 
"ing  upon  paper;  all  very  right  to  begin  with,  but  very 
"  prejudicial  to  progress.  I  employ,  as  engineer  to  the 
"  General  Land  Drainage  Company,  and  on  my  private 
"  account,  during  the  drainage  season,  as  many  as  2,000 
"  men,  and  it  is  an  actual  fact,  that  not  one  of  them  uses 
"  the  set  of  tools  figured  in  print.  I  have  frequently  pur- 
"  chased  a  number  of  sets  of  the  Birmingham  tools,  and 
"  sent  them  down  on  extensive  works.  The  laborers  would 
"  purchase  a  few  of  the  smaller  tools,  such  as  Nos.  290, 
"  291,  and  301,  figured  in  Morton's  excellent  Cyclopaedia 
"  of  Agriculture,  and  would  try  them,  and  then  order 
u  others  of  the  country  blacksmith,  differing  in  several 
"  respects ;  less  weighty  and  much  less  costly,  and  more 
"  over,  much  better  as  working  tools.  All  I  require  of  the 
"  cutters,  is,  that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  evenly 
"  cut,  to  fit  the  size  of  the  pipe.  The  rest  of  the  work 
"  takes  care  of  itself;  for  a  good  workman  will  economize 
"  his  labor  for  his  own  sake,  by  moving  as  little  earth  as 
"  practicable ;  thus,  for  instance,  a  first-class  cutter,  in 


116  DBAINING  FOE  PEOFTT  AND   HEALTH. 

"  clays,  will  get  down  4  feet  with  a  12-inch  opening,  ordtf 
"  narily ;  if  he  wishes  to  show  off,  he  will  sacrifice  his 
*  own  comfort  to  appearance,  and  will  do  it  with  a  10-inch 
"  opening." 

In  the  Central  Park  work,  sets  of  these  tools  were  pro- 
cured, at  considerable  expense,  and  every  effort  was  made 
to  compel  the  men  to  use  them,  but  it  was  soon  found  that, 
even  in  the  easiest  digging,  there  was  a  real  economy  in 
using,  for  the  first  3  feet  of  the  ditch,  the  common  spade, 
pick,  and  shovel, — finishing  the  bottoms  with  the  narrow 
spade  and  scoop  hereafter  described,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  experience  of  that  work  will  be  sustained  by  that 
of  the  country  at  large. 

Marking  the  Lines. — To  lay  a  drain  directly  under  the 
position  of  its  stakes,  would  require  that  enough  earth  be 
eft  at  each  point  to  hold  the  stake,  and  that  the  ditch  be 
tunneled  under  it.  This  is  expensive  and  unnecessary.  It 
is  better  to  dig  the  ditches  at  one  side  of  the  lines  of 
stakes,  far  enough  away  for  the  earth  to  hold  them 
firmly  in  their  places,  but  near  enough  to  allow  measure- 
ments to  be  taken  from  the  grade  pegs.  If  the  ditch  be 
placed  always  to  the  right,  or  always  to  the  left,  of  the  line, 
and  at  a  uniform  distance,  the  general  plan  will  remain  the 
same,  and  the  lines  will  be  near  enough  to  those  marked 
on  the  map  to  be  easily  found  at  any  future  time.  In  fact, 
if  it  be  known  that  the  line  of  tiles  is  two  feet  to  the  right 
of  the  position  indicated,  it  will  only  be  necessary,  at  any 
time,  should  it  be  desired  to  open  an  old  drain,  to 
measure  two  feet  to  the  right  of  the  surveyed  position  to 
strike  the  line  at  once. 

In  soils  of  ordinary  tenacity,  ditches  4  feet  deep  need 
not  be  more  than  twenty  (20)  inches  wide  at  the  surface, 
and  four  (4)  inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  This  will  allow, 
in  each  side,  a  slope  of  eight  (8)  inches,  which  is  sufficient 
except  in  very  loose  soils,  and  even  these  may  be  braced 
up,  if  inclined  to  cave  in.  There  are  cases  where  the  soil 


HOW  TO   MAKE  THE  DRAINS.  117 

contains  so  much  running  sand,  and  is  so  saturated  with 
water,  that  no  precautions  will  avail  to  keep  up  the  banks. 
Ditches  in  such  ground  will  sometimes  fall  in,  until  the  ex- 
cavation reaches  a  width  of  8  or  10  feet.  Such  instances, 
however,  are  very  rare,  and  must  be  treated  as  the  occa- 
sion suggests. 

One  of  the  garden  lines  should  be  set  at  a  distance  01 
about  6  inches  from  the  row  of  stakes,  and  the  other  at  a 
further  distance  of  20  inches.  If  the  land  is  in  grass,  the 
position  of  these  lines  may  be  marked  with  a  spade,  and 
they  may  be  removed  at  once ;  but,  if  it  is  arable  land,  it 
will  be  best  to  leave  the  lines  in  position  until  the  ditch  is 
excavated  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  mark  it  clearly.  Indeed, 
it  will  be  well  at  once  to  remove  all  of  the  sod  and  surface 
coil,  say  to  a  depth  of  6  inches,  (throwing  this  on  the  same 
side  with  the  stakes,  and  back  of  them.)  The  whole  force 
can  be  profitably  employed  in  this  work,  until  all  of  the 
ditches  to  be  dug  are  scored  to  this  depth  over  the  entire 
tract  to  be  drained,  except  in  swamps  which  are  still  too 
wet  for  this  work. 

Water  Courses. — The  brooks  which  carry  the  water 
from  the  springs  should  be  "jumped"  in  marking  out 
the  lines,  as  it  is  desirable  that  their  water  be  kept  in  sep- 
arate channels,  so  far  as  possible,  until  the  tiles  are  ready 
to  receive  it,  as,  if  allowed  to  run  in  the  open  ditches,  it 
would  undermine  the  banks  and  keep  the  bottom  too  soft 
for  sound  work. 

With  this  object,  commence  at  the  southern  boundary 
of  our  example  tract,  10  or  15  feet  east  of  the  point  of 
outlet,  and  drive  a  straight,  temporary,  shallow  ditch  to  a 
point  a  little  west  of  the  intersection  of  the  main  line  D 
with  its  first  lateral ;  then  carry  it  in  a  northwesterly 
direction,  crossing  G  midway  between  the  silt-basin  and 
stake  G  1,  and  thence  into  the  present  line  of  the  brook, 
turning  all  of  the  water  into  the  ditch.  A  branch  of  thif 


118  DRAINING  FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

ditch  may  be  run  up  between  the  lines  .Fand  G  to  receive 
the  water  from  the  spring  which  lies  in  that  direction. 
This  arrangement  will  keep  the  water  out  of  the  way 
until  the  drains  are  ready  to  take  it. 

,  The  Outlet. — The  water  being  all  discharged  through 
the  new  temporary  ditch,  the  old  brook,  beyond  the 
boundary,  should  be  cleared  out  to  the  final  level  (3. 75,) 
and  an  excavation  made,  just  within  the  boundary,  suffi- 
cient to  receive  the  masonry  which  is  to  protect  the  out- 
let. A  good  form  of  outlet  is  shown  in  Fig.  23.  It  may 


Fig.  33.— OUTLET,    SECURED   WITH   MASONRY   AND   QR4.TING. 

be  cheaply  made  by  any  farmer,  especially  if  he  have  good 
stone  at  hand ; — if  not,  brick  may  be  used,  laid  on  a  solid 
foundation  of  stout  planks,  which,  (being  protected  from 
the  air  and  always  saturated  with  water,)  will  last  a  very 
long  time. 

If  made  of  stone,  a  solid  floor,  at  least  2  feet  square, 
should  be  placed  at,  or  below,  the  level  of  the  brook.  If 
this  consist  of  a  single  stone,  it  will  be  better  than  if  of 
several  smaller  pieces.  On  this,  place  another  layer  ex- 
tending the  whole  width  of  the  first,  but  reaching  only 
from  its  inner  edge  to  its  center  line,  so  as  to  leave  a  foot 


HOW  TO   MAKE  THE   DRAINS.  11 C 

in  width  of  the  bottom  stone  to  receive  the  fall  of  the 
water.  This  second  layer  should  reach  exactly  the  grade 
of  the  outlet  (3.50)  or  a  height  of  3  inches  from  the  brook 
level.  On  the  floor  thus  made,  there  should  be  laid  the 
tiles  which  are  to  constitute  the  outlets  of  the  several 
drains;  i.  e.,  one  3|-inch  tile  for  the  line  from  the  silt- 
basin,  two  1^-inch  for  the  lines  F  and  G,  and  one  2^-inch 
for  the  main  line  E.  These  tiles  should  lie  close  to  each 
other  and  be  firmly  cemented  together,  so  that  no  water 
can  pass  outside  of  them,  and  a  rubble-work  of  stone  may 
with  advantage  be  carried  up  a  foot  above  them.  Stone 
work,  which  may  be  rough  and  uncemented,  but  should 
always  be  solid,  may  then  be  built  up  at  the  sides,  and 
covered  with  a  secure  coping  of  stone.  A  floor  and  slop- 
ing sides  of  stone  work,  jointed  with  the  previously  de- 
scribed work,  and  well  cemented,  or  laid  in  strong  clay  or 
mortar,  mny,  with  benefit,  be  carried  a  few  feet  beyond  the 
outlet.  This  will  effectually  prevent  the  undermining  of 
the  structure.  After  the  entire  drainage  of  the  field  is 
finished,  the  earth  above  these  sloping  sides,  and  that  back 
of  the  coping,  should  be  neatly  sloped,  and  protected  by 
sods.  An  iron  grating,  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  vermin,  placed  in  front  of  the  tile,  at  a  little  distance 
from  them, — and  secured  by  a  flat  stone  set  on  edge  and 
hollowed  out,  so  as  merely  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  freely 
from  the  drains, — the  stone  being  cemented  in  its  place  so 
as  to  allow  no  water  to  pass  under  it, — will  give  a  sub- 
stantial and  permanent  finish  to  the  structure. 

An  outlet  finished  in  this  way,  at  an  extra  cost  of  a  few 
dollars,  will  be  most  satisfactory,  as  a  lasting  means  of 
securing  the  weakest  and  most  important  part  of  the  sys- 
tem of  drains.  When  no  precaution  of  this  sort  is  taken, 
the  water  frequently  forces  a  passage  under  the  tile  for  some 
distance  up  the  drains,  undermining  and  displacing  them, 
and  so  softening  the  bottom  that  it  will  be  difficult,  in 
making  repairs,  to  secure  a  solid  foundation  for  the  work. 


120  DRAINING  FOB  PEOPIT  AND   HEALTH 

Usually,  repairs  of  this  sort,  aside  from  the  annoyance  at- 
tending them,  will  cost  more  than  the  amount  required  to 
make  the  permanent  outlet  described  above.  As  well  con 
strucled  outlets  are  necessarily  rather  expensive,  as  much 
of  the  land  as  possible  should  be  drained  to  each  one  that 
it  is  necessary  to  make,  by  laying  main  lines  which  will 
collect  all  of  the  water  which  can  be  brought  to  it. 

The  Main  Silt-Basin,— The  silt-basin,  at  which  the 
drains  are  collected,  may  best  be  built  before  any  drains 
are  brought  to  it,  and  the  work  may  proceed  simultane- 
ously with  that  at  the  outlet.  It  should  be  so  placed  that 
its  center  will  lie  exactly  under  the  proposed  line  of  the 
drain,  because  it  will  constitute  one  of  the  leading  land- 
marks for  the  survey.* 

Before  removing  the  stake  and  grade  stake,  mark  their 
position  by  four  stakes,  set  at  a  distance  from  it  of  4  or  5 
feet,  in  such  positions  that  two  lines,  drawn  from  those 
which  are  opposite  to  each  other,  will  intersect  at  the  point 
indicated;  and  place  near  one  of  them  a  grade  stake, 
driven  to  the  exact  level  of  the  one  to  be  removed.  This 
being  done,  dig  a  well,  4  feet  in  diameter,  to  a  depth  of 
ty  feet  below  the  grade  of  the  outlet  drain,  (in  the  exam- 
ple under  consideration  this  would  be  5  feet  below  the 
grade  stake.)  If  much  water  collects  in  the  hole,  widen 
it,  in  the  direction  of  the  outlet  drain,  sufficiently  to  give 
room  for  baling  out  the  water.  Now  build,  in  this  well, 
a  structure  2  feet  in  interior  diameter,  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  24,  having  its  bottom  2  feet,  in  the  clear,  below  the 
grade  of  the  outlet,  and  carry  its  wall  a  little  higher  than 
the  general  surface  of  the  ground.  At  the  proper  height 
insert,  in  the  brick  work,  the  necessary  tiles  for  all  incom- 
ing and  outgoing  drains ;  in  this  case,  a  3^-inch  tile  for 

*  The  drains,  which  are  removed  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  lines  of  stakes, 
should  strike  the  center  of  the  silt  basin. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  DRAINS.  121 

the  outlet,  2^-inch  for  the  mains  A  and  C,  and  1^-inch  for 
B  and  D. 

This  basin  being  finished  and  covered  with  a  flat  stone 
or  other  suitable  material,  connect  it  with  the  outlet  by  an 
open  ditch,  unless  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch,  when  laid 
open  to  the  proper  depth,  be 
found  to  be  of  muck  or  quick- 
sand. In  such  case,  it  will 
be  best  to  lay  the  tile  at 
once,  and  cover  it  in  for  the 
whole  distance,  as,  on  a  soft 
bottom,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  lay  it  well  when  the  full 
drainage  of  the  field  is  flow- 
ing through  the  ditch.  The 
tiles  should  be  laid  with  all 
care,  on  a  perfectly  regulated 
fall, — using  strips  of  board 
under  them  if  the  bottom  is 
shaky  or  soft, — as  on  this  line 
depends  the  success  of  all  the 

Fig.  24.-SILT-BASIN,  BUILT   TO    THE    drain*  SlboVC'   it,    which  might 

be    rendered    useless    by    a 

single  badly  laid  tile  at  this  point,  or  by  any  other  cause 
of  obstruction  to  the  flo\v. 

While  the  work  is  progressing  in  the  field  above,  there 
will  be  a  great  deal  of  muddy  water  and  some  sticks, 
grass,  atid  other  rubbish,  running  from  the  ditches  above 
the  basin,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  this  drain 
from  becoming  choked.  A  piece  of  wire  cloth,  or  basket 
work,  placed  over  the  outlet  in  the  basin,  will  keep  out  the 
coarser  matters,  and  the  mud  which  would  accumulate  in 
the  tile  may  be  removed  by  occasional  flushing.  This  is 
done  by  crowding  a  tuft  of  grass, — or  a  bit  of  sod, — into 
6 


122  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

the  lower  end  of  the  tile  (at  the  outlet,)  securing  it  there 
until  the  water  rises  in  the  basin,  and  then  removing  h. 
The  rush  of  water  will  be  sufficient  to  wash  the  tile  clean. 
This  plan  is  not  without  objections,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  ia 
never  well  to  lay  any  tiles  at  the  lower  end  of  a  drain 
until  all  above  it  is  finished ;  but  when  a  considerable  out- 
let must  be  secured  through  soft  land,  which  is  inclined  to 
cave  in,  and  to  get  soft  at  the  bottom,  it  will  save  labor 
to  secure  the  tile  in  place  before  much  water  reaches  it, 
even  though  it  require  a  daily  flushing  to  keep  it  clean. 

Opening  the  Ditches. — Thus  far  it  has  been  sought  to 
secure  a  permanent  outlet,  and  to  connect  it  by  a  secure 
channel,  with  the  silt-basin,  which  is  to  collect  the 
water  of  the  different  series  of  drains.  The  next  step 
is  to  lay  open  the  ditches  for  these.  It  will  be  best  to 
commence  with  the  main  line  A  and  its  laterals,  as  they 
will  take  most  of  the  water  which  now  flows  through  the 
open  brook,  and  prevent  its  interference  wtth  the  rest  of 
the  work. 

The  first  work  is  the  opening  of  the  ditches  to  a  depth 
of  about  3  feet,  which  may  be  best  done  with  the  common 
spade,  pick,  and  shovel,  except  that  in  ground  which  is 
tolerably  free  from  stones,  a  subsoil  plow  will  often  take 
the  place  of  the  pick,  with  much  saving  of  labor.  It  may 
be  drawn  by  oxen  working  in  a  long  yoke,  which  will  allow 
them  to  walk  one  on  each  side  of  the  ditch,  but  this  is  dan- 
gerous, as  they  are  liable  to  disturb  the  stakes,  (especially 
the  grade  stakes,)  and  to  break  down  the  edges  of  the 
ditches.  The  best  plan  is  to  use  a  small  subsoil  plow, 
drawn  by  a  single  horse,  or  strong  mule,  trained  to  walk 
in  the  ditch.  The  beast  will  soon  learn  to  accommodate 
himself  to  his  narrow  quarters,  and  will  work  easily  in  a 
ditch  2£  feet  deep,  having  a  width  of  less  than  afoot  at  the 
bottom;  of  course  there  must  be  a  way  provided  for  him 
to  come  out  at  each  end.  Deeper  than  this  there  is  no 


TO   MAKE   THE   DRAINS.  125 

economy  in  using  horse  power,  and  even  for  this  depth  it 
will  be  necessary  to  use  a  plow  having  only  one  stilt. 

Before  the  main  line  is  cut  into  the  open  brook,  this 
should  be  furnished  with  a  wooden  trough,  which  will 
carry  the  water  across  it,  so  that  the  ditch  shall 
receive  only  the  filtration  from  the  ground. 
Those  laterals  west  of  the  main  line,  which  are 
crossed  by  the  brook,  had  better  not  be  opened 
at  present, — not  until  the  water 
of  the  spring  is  admitted  to  and 
removed  by  the  drain. 

The  other  laterals  and  the 
whole  of  the  main  line,  having 
been  cut  to  a  depth  of  3  feet, 
take  a  finishing  spade,  (Fig.  25,) 
M-hich  is  only  4  inches  wide  at 
its  point,  and  dig  to  within  2  or 
3  inches  of  the  depth  marked 
on  the  stakes,  making  the  bot-  Fi^.  25.— FIN- 
torn  tolerably  smooth,  with  the  ISIIIN(i  S1'A1>P" 
aid  of  the  finishing  scoop,  (Fig.  2(>,)  and 
giving  it  as  regular  an  inclination  as  can  be 
obtained  by  the  eye  alone. 

Often,  large  stones,  which  would  cost  much 
labor  to  remove,  will  be  encountered  in  the 
digging.  If  these  lie  from  6  inches  to  a 
foot  above  the  final  grade,  and  are  not  too 
large,  it  will  be  easier  to  tunnel  under  them 
than  to  take  them  out,  or  to  go  around  them  ; 
but,  if  they  are  very  large,  or  lie  close  to  the 
bottom,  (or  in  the  bottom,)  the  latter  course 
will  be  necessary. 

p-lfr   20 FIN-        If  the  ground  is  "  rotten,"  and  the  banks 

i3H\NG  SCOOP.  Of  tjie  ditches  incline  to  cave  in,  as  is  often 
the  case  in  passing  wet  places,  the  earth  which  is  thrown 
out  in  digging  must  be  thrown  back  sufficiently  far  from 


124 


DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 


edge 


Fig    27.— BRACING  THE 
SIDES  IX  SOFT  LAND. 


to  prevent  its  weight  from  increasing  the 
tendency ;  and  the  sides  of  the  ditch 
may  be  supported  by  bits  of  board 
braced  apart  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  27. 

The  manner  of  open- 
ing the  ditches,  which 
is  described  above, 
for  the  main  A  and 
its  laterals,  will  apply 
to  the  drains  of  the 
whole  field  and  to  all 
similar  work. 

Grading  the  Bottoms,— The  next  step 
in  the  work  is  to  grade  the  bottoms  of  the 
ditches,  so  as  to  afford  a  bed  for  the  tiles 
on  the  exact  linos  which  are  indicated  by 
the  figures  marked  on  the  different  stakes. 

The  manner  in  which  this  is  to  be 
done  may  be  illustrated  by  describing  the 
work  required  for  the  line  from  C 10  to 
(717,  (Fig.  20,)  after  it<  has  been  opened, 
as  described  above,  to  within  2  or  3  inches 
of  the  final  depth. 

A  measuring  rod,  or  square,  such  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  28,*  is  set  at  C  10,  so  that 
the  lower  side  of  its  arm  is  at  the  mark 
4.59  on  the  staff,  (or  at  a  little  less  than  4.6 
if  it  is  divided  only  into  feet  and  tenths,) 
and  is  held  upright  in  the  ditch,  with  its 
arm  directly  over  the  grade  stake.  The 
earth  below  it  is  removed,  little  by  little,  until  it  will  touch 
the  top  of  the  stake  and  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at  the 


Fig.  28. — MEASUR- 
ING   STAFF. 


*  The  foot  of  the  measuring  rod  should  be  shod  with  iron  to  prevent 
Us  being  worn  to  less  thau  the  proper  length. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE   DKAIKS. 


125 


same  time.  If  the  ground  is  soft,  it  should  be  cut  out 
until  a  flat  stone,  a  block  of  wood,  or  a  piece  of  tile,  or  of 
brick,  sunk  in  the  bottom,  Avill  have  its  surface  at  the  exact 
point  of  measurement.  This  point  is  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  on  which  the  collar  of  the  tile  is  to  lie  at  that  stake. 
In  the  same  manner  the  depth  is  fixed  at  (711  (4.19,)  and 
(712  (4.41,)  as  the  rate  of  fall  changes  at  each 
of  these  points,  and  at  C"15  (3.89,)  and  6r17 
(4.17,)  because  (although  the  fall  is  uniform 
from  C12  to  (717,)  the  distance  is  too  great 
for  accurate  sighting. 

Having  provided  boning-rods,  which  are 
strips  of  board  7  feet  long,  having  horizontal 
cross  pieces  at  their  upper  ends,  (see  Fig. 
29,)  set  these  perpendicularly  on  the  spots 
which  have  been  found  by  measurement  to 
be  at  the  correct  depth  opposite  stakes  10, 
11,  12,  15,  and  17,  and  fasten  each  in  its 
place  by  wedging  it  between  two  strips  of 
board  laid  across  the  ditch,  so  as  to  clasp  it, 
securing  these  in  their  places  by  laying  stones 
or  earth  upon  their  ends. 

As  these  boning-rods  are  all  exactly  7  feet 
long,  of  course,  a  line  sighted  across  their 
tops  will  be  exactly  7  feet  higher,  at  all 
points,  than  the  required  grade  of  the  ditch 
directly  beneath  it,  and  if  a  plumb  rod,  (similar  to 
the  boning-rod,  but  provided  with  a  line  and  plummet,) 
be  set  perpendicularly  on  any  point  of  the  bottom  of 
the  drain,  the  relation  of  its  cross  piece  to  the  line  of  sight 
across  the  tops  of  the  boning-rods  will  show  Avhether  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  at  that  point  is  too  high,  or  too  low, 
or  just  right.  The  manner  of  sighting  over  two  boning- 
rods  and  an  intermediate  plumb-rod,  is  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

Three  persons  are  required  to  finish  the  bottom  of  the 


iir.  20.— BOX- 
ING KOD. 


126 


DRAINING    FOH    PKOFIT   AND    HEALTH. 


ditch ;  one  to  sight  across  the  tops  of  the  boning-rods,  one 
to  hold  the  plumb-rod  at  different  points  as  the  finishing 
progresses,  and  one  in  the  ditch,  (see  Fig.  30,)  provided 
with  the  finishing  spade  and  scoop, — and,  in  hard  ground, 
with  a  pick, — to  cut  down  or  fill  up  as  the  first  man  calls 


Fig.  30. — POSITION  OF  WORKMAN  AND   USE   OF  FINISHING   SCOOP. 

"  too  high,"  or  "  too  low."  An  inch  or  two  of  filling  may- 
be beaten  sufficiently  hard  with  the  back  of  the  scoop, 
but  if  several  inches  should  be  required,  it  should  be  well 


Fig.  31.— SIGHTING   BT    TUB   BONING-RODS. 

rammed  with  the  top  of  a  pick,  or  other  suitable  instrument, 
as  any  subsequent  settling  would  disarrange  the  fall. 

As  the  lateral  drains  are  to  be  laid  first,  they  should  be 
the  first  graded,  and  as  they  are  arranged  to  discharge  into 
the  tops  of  the  mains,  their  water  will  still  flow  off, 
although  the  main  ditches  are  not  yet  reduced  to  their  final 


HOW  TO   MAKE  THE   DBAHT8.  127 

depth.  After  the  laterals  are  laid  and  filled  in,  the  main 
should  be  graded,  commencing  at  the  upper  end ;  the  tiles 
being  laid  and  covered  as  fast  as  the  bottom  is  made  ready, 
so  that  it  may  not  be  disturbed  by  the  water  of  which  the 
main  carries  so  much  more  than  the  laterals. 

Tile-Laying. -Gisborne  says :  "It  would  be  scarcely 
"  more  absurd  to  set  a  common  blacksmith  to  eye  needles 
"  than  to  employ  a  common  laborer  to  lay  pipes  and  col- 
*  lars."  The  work  comes  under  the  head  of  skilled  labor, 
and,  while  no  very  great  exercise  of  judgment  is  required 
in  its  performance,  the  little  that  is  required  is  impera- 
tively necessary,  and  the  details  of  the  work  should  be 
deftly  done.  The  whole  previous  outlay, — the  survey  and 
staking  of  the  field,  the  purchase  of  the  tiles,  the  digging 
and  grading  of  the  ditches — has  been  undertaken  that  we 
may  make  the  conduit  of  earthenware  pipes  which  is  now 
to  be  laid,  and  the  whole  may  be  rendered  useless  by  a 
want  of  care  and  completeness  in  the  performance  of  this 
chief  operation.  This  subject,  (in  connection  with  that  of 
finishing  the  bottoms  of  the  ditches,)  is  very  clearly  treated 
in  Mr.  Hoskyns'  charming  essay,*  as  follows : 

"  It  was  urged  by  Mr.  Brunei,  as  a  justification  for  moro 
'  attention  and  expense  in  the  laying  of  the  rails  of  the 
"  Great  Western,  than  had  been  ever  thought  of  upon 
"  previously  constructed  lines,  that  all  the  embankments 
"  and  cuttings,  and  earthworks  and  stations,  and  law  and 
"  parliamentary  expenses — in  fact,  the  whole  of  the  out- 
"lay  encountered  in  the  formation  of  a  railway,  had  for  its 
"  main  and  ultimate  object  a  perfectly  smooth  and  level 
"  line  of  rail ;  that  to  turn  btingy  at  this  point,  just  when 
**  you  had  arrived  at  the  great  ultimatum  of  the  whole 
"  proceedings,  viz :  the  iron  wheel-track,  was  a  sort  of 
"  saving  which  evinced  a  want  of  true  preception  of  the 
**  great  object  of  all  the  labor  that  had  preceded  it.  It 

*  "Talpa,  or  the  Chronicles  of  a  Clay  Farm.'1 


128  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

"  may  seem  curious  to  our  experiences,  in  these  days,  that 
u  such  a  doctrine  could  ever  have  needed  to  be  enforced 
"by  argument;  yet  no  one  will  deem  it  wonderful  who 
*•  has  personally  witnessed  the  unaccountable  and  ever  new 
"  difficulty  of  getting  proper  attention  paid  to  the  leveling 
"  of  the  bottom  of  a  drain,  and  the  laying  of  the  tiles  hi 
"  that  continuous  line,  where  one  single  depression  or  ir- 
"  regularity,  by  collecting  the  water  at  that  spot,  year 
"  after  year,  tends  toward  the  eventual  stoppage  of  the 
"  whole  drain,  through  two  distinct  causes,  the  softening 
"  ,)f  the  foundation  underneath  the  sole,  or  tile  flange,  and 
"  the  deposit  of  soil  inside  the  tile  from  the  water  collected 
"  at  the  spot,  and  standing  there  after  the  rest  had  run  off. 
"Every  depression,  however  slight,  is  constantly  doing 
"  this  mischief  in  every  drain  where  the  fall  is  but  trifling ; 
"  and  if  to  the  two  consequences  above  mentioned,  we 
"  may  add  the  decomposition  of  the  tile  itself  by  the 
"  action  of  water  long  stagnant  within  it,  we  may  deduce 
"  that  every  tile-drain  laid  with  these  imperfections  in 
"  the  finishing  of  the  bottom,  has  a  tendency  toward 
"  obliteration,  out  of  all  reasonable  proportion  with 
"  that  of  a  well-burnt  tile  laid  on  a  perfectly  even  inclina- 
"  tion,  which,  humanly  speaking,  may  be  called  a  perma- 
**  nent  thing.  An  open  ditch  cut  by  the  most  skillful 
"  workman,  in  the  summer,  affords  the  best  illustration  of 
"  this  underground  mischief  Nothing  can  look  smoother 
"  and  more  even  than  the  bottom,  until  that  uncompromis- 
"  ing  test  of  accurate  levels,  the  water,  makes  its  appear- 
"  ance :  all  on  a  sudden  the  whole  scene  is  changed,  the 
"  eye-accredited  level  vanishes  as  if  some  earthquake  had 
"  taken  place:  here,  there  is  a  gravelly  scour,  along  which 
"  the  stream  rushes  in  a  thousand  little  angry-looking  rip- 
"  pies ;  there,  it  hangs  and  looks  as  dull  and  heavy  as  if  it 
"  had  given  up  running  at  all,  as  a  useless  waste  of  energy ; 
"  in  another  place,  a  few  dead  leaves  or  sticks,  or  a  morse) 
"  of  soil  broken  from  the  side,  dams  back  the  water  for  a 


HOW   TO   MAKE   THE    DRAINS.  129 

considerable  distance,  occasioning  a  deposit  .  f  soil  along 
u  the  whole  reach,  greater  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
"  and  the  muddiness  of  the  water  detained.  All  this  shows 
"  the  paramount  importance  of  perfect  evenness  in  the 
"  bed  on  which  the  tiles  are  laid.  The  worst  laid  tile  is 
''the  measure  of  the  goodness  and  permanence  of  the 
"if hole  drain,  just  as  the  weakest  link  of  a  chain  is  the 
"  measure  of  its  strength." 

The  simple  laying  of  the  smaller  sizes  of  pipes  and  col- 
lars in  the  lateral  drains,  is  an  easy  matter.  It  requires 
care  and  precision  in  placing  the  collar  equally  under  the 
end  of  each  pipe,  (having  the  joint  at  the  middle  of 
the  collar,)  in  having  the  ends  of  the  pipes  actually  touch 
each  other  within  the  collars,  and  in  brushing  away  any 
loose  dirt  which  may  have  fallen  on  the  spot  on  which  the 
collar  is  to  rest.  The  connection  of  the  laterals  with 
the  mains,  the  laying  of  the  larger  sizes  of  tiles  so  as  to 
form  a  close  joint,  the  wedging  of  these  larger  tiles  firmly 
into  their  places,  and  the  trimming  which  is  necessary  in 
going  around  sharp  curves,  and  in  putting  in  the  shorter 
pieces  which  are  needed  to  fill  out  the  exact  length  of  the 
drain,  demand  more  skill  and  judgment  than  are  often 
found  in  the  common  ditcher.  Still,  any  clever  workman, 
who  has  a  careful  habit,  may  easily  be  taught  all  that  is 
necessary ;  and  until  he  is  thoroughly  taught, — and  not 
only  knows  how  to  do  the  work  well,  but,  also,  under- 
stands the  importance  of  doing  it  well, — the  proprietor 
should  carefully  watch  the  laying  of  every  piece. 

Never  have  tiles  laid  by  the  rod,  but  always  by  the 
day.  "  The  more  haste,  the  less  speed,"  is  a  maxim  which 
applies  especially  to  tile-laying. 

If  the  proprietor  or  the  engineer  does  not  overlook  the 
laying  of  each  tile  as  it  is  done,  and  probably  he  will  not, 
he  should  carefully  inspect  every  piece  before  it  is  covered. 
It  is  well  to  walk  along  the  ditches  and  touch  each  tile 
with  the  end  of  a  light  rod,  in  such  a  way  as  to  see 

a* 


130  DRAINING    FOB  PBOFTT  AND   IIEATTH. 

whether  it  is  firm  enough  in  its  position  not  to  be  dis- 
placed by  the  earth  which  will  fall  upon  it  in  filling  the 
ditches. 

Preparatory  to  laying,  the  tiles  should  be  placed  along 
one  side  of  the  ditch,  near  enough  to  be  easily  reached  by 
a  man  standing  in  it.  When  collars  are  to  be  used,  one  of 
these  should  be  slipp  3d  over  one  end  of  each  tile.  The 
workman  stands  in  the  ditch,  with  his  face  toward  its 
upper  end.  The  first  tile  is  laid  with  a  collar  on  its  lower 
end,  and  the  collar  is  drawn  one-half  of  its  length  forward, 
so  as  to  receive  the  end  of  the  next  tile.  The  upper  end 
of  the  first  tile  is  closed  with  a  stone,  or  a  bit  of  broken 
tile  placed  firmly  against  it.  The  next  tile  has  its  nose 
placed  into  the  projecting  half  of  the  collar  of  the  first 
one,  and  its  own  collar  is  drawn  forward  to  receive  the 
end  of  the  third,  and  thus  to  the  end  of  the  drain,  the 
workman  walking  backward  as  the  work  progresses.  By 
and  by,  when  he  comes  to  connect  the  lateral  with  the 
main,  he  may  find  that  a  short  piece  of  tile  is  needed  to 
complete  the  length ;  this  should  not  be  placed  next  to  the 
tile  of  the  main,  where  it  is  raised  above  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch,  but  two  or  three  lengths  back,  leaving  the  con- 
nection with  the  main  to  be  made  with  a  tile  of  full 
length.  If  the  piece  to  be  inserted  is  only  two  or  three 
inches  long,  it  may  be  omitted,  and  the  space  covered  by 
using  a  whole  2^-inch  tile  in  place  of  the  collar.  In  turn- 
ing corners  or  sharp  curves,  the  end  of  the  tile  may  be 
chipped  off,  so  as  to  be  a  little  thinner  on  one  side,  which 
will  allow  it  to  be  turned  at  a  greater  angle  in  the  collar. 

If  the  drain  turns  a  right  angle,  it  will  be  better  to  dig 
out  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  a  depth  of  about  eight 
inches,  and  to  set  a  6-inch  tile  on  end  in  the  hole,  per- 
forating its  sides,  so  as  to  admit  the  ends  of  the  pipes  at 
the  proper  level  This  6-inch  tile,  (which  acts  as  a  small 
silt-basin,)  should  stand  on  a  board  or  on  a  flat  stone,  and 
its  top  should  be  covered  with  a  stone  or  with  a  couple  o/ 


nOW    TO    MAKE   TUB   DRAINS.  131 

bricks.  Wood  will  last  almost  forever  below  the  level  of 
the  drain,  where  it  will  always  be  saturated  with  water, 
but  in  the  drier  earth  above  the  tile,  it  would  be  quite 
sure  to  decay. 

The  trimming  and  perforating  of  the  tile  is  done  with  a 
"  tile-pick,"  (Fig.  32,)  the  hatchet  end, 
tolerably  sharp,  being  used  for  the 
trimming,  and  the  point,  for  making 
the  holes.  This  is  done  by  striking 
lightly  around  the  circumference  of 
the  hole  until  the  center  piece  falls  in, 
or  can  easily  be  knocked  in.  If  the 
hole  is  irregular,  and  does  not  fit  the 
tile  nicely,  the  open  space  should  be 
DRESSING  AND  PER-  covered  with  bits  of  broken  tile,  to 

FORATING    TILE  i  i  i 

keep  the  earth  out. 

As  fast  as  the  laterals  are  laid  and  inspected,  they  should 
be  filled  in  to  the  depth  of  at  least  a  foot,  to  protect  the 
tile^from  being  broken  by  the  falling  of  stones  or  lumps 
of  earth  from  the  top,  and  from  being  displaced  by  water 
flowing  in  the  ditch.  Two  or  three  feet  of  the  lower 
end  may  be  left  uncovered  until  the  connection  with  the 
main  is  finished. 

In  the  main  drains,  when  the  tiles  are  of  the  size  with 
which  collars  are  used,  the  laying  is  done  in  the  same  man- 
ner. If  it  is  necessary  to  use  3^-inch  tiles,  or  any  larger 
size,  much  more  care  must  be  given  to  the  closing  of  the 
joints.  All  tiles,  in  manufacture,  dry  more  rapidly  at  the 
top,  which  is  more  exposed  to  the  air,  than  at  the  bottom, 
and  they  are,  therefore,  contracted  and  made  shorter  at 
the  top.  This  difference  is  most  apparent  in  the  larger 
sizes.  The  large  rowwe^tiles,  which  can  be  laid  on  any  side, 
can  easily  be  made  to  form  a  close  joint,  and  they 
should  be  secured  in  their  proper  position  by  stones  or 
lumps  of  earth,  wedged  in  between  them  and  the  sides  of 
the  ditch.  The  sole  tiles  must  lie  with  the  shortest  sidei 


132  DBATNING   FOB   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH 

np,  and  usually,  the  space  between  two  tiles,  at  the  x>p, 
will  be  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  of  an  inch.  To 
remedy  this  defect,  and  form  a  joint  which  may  be  pro- 
tected against  the  entrance  of  earth,  the  bottom  should  be 
trimmed  off,  so  as  to  allow  the  tops  to  come  closer  to 
gether.  Any  opening,  of  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
can  be  satisfactorily  covered, — more  than  that  should  not 
be  allowed.  In  turning  corners,  or  in  passing  around 
curves,  with  large  tiles,  their  ends  must  be  beveled  off 
with  the  pick,  so  as  to  fit  nicely  in  this  position. 

The  best  covering  for  the  joints  of  tiles  which  are 
laid  without  collars,  is  a  scrap  of  tin,  bent  so  as  to  fit  their 
shape, — scraps  of  leather,  or  bits  of  strong  wood  shavings, 
answer  a  very  good  purpose,  though  both  of  these  latter  re- 
quire to  be  held  in  place  by  putting  a  little  earth  over  their 
ends  as  soon  as  laid  on  the  tile.  Very  small  grass  ropes 
drawn  over  the  joints,  (the  ends  being  held  down  with 
stones  or  earth,)  form  a  satisfactory  covering,  but  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  be  not  too  thick.  Strips  of  news- 
paper, doubled  and  laid  over  the  joints,  answer  an  excel- 
lent purpose.  Care,  however,  should  always  be  taken, 
in  using  any  material  which  will  decay  readily,  to  have  no 
more  than  is  necessary  to  keep  the  earth  out,  lest,  in  its 
decay,  it  furnish  material  to  be  carried  into  the  tile  and  ob- 
struct the  flow.  This  precaution  becomes  less  necessary 
in  the  case  of  drains  which  always  carry  considerable 
streams  of  water,  but  if  they  are  at  times  sluggish  in  their 
flow,  too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  keep  them  free 
of  all  possible  causes  of  obstruction.  As  nothing  is  gained 
by  increasing  the  quantity  of  loose  covering  beyond  what 
is  needed  to  close  the  joints,  and  as  such  covering  is  only 
procured  with  some  trouble,  there  is  no  reason  for  its  ex- 
travagant use. 

There  seems  to  remain  in  the  minds  of  many  writers  on 
drainage  a  glimmering  of  the  old  fallacy  that  underdrains, 
like  open  drains,  receive  their  water  from  above,  and  it  ia 


BOW    TO   MAKE  THE   DRAINS.  133 

too  commonly  recommended  that  porous  substances  be 
placed  above  the  tile.  If,  as  is  universally  conceded,  the 
water  rises  into  the  tile  from  below,  this  is  unnecessary. 
The  practice  of  covering  the  joints,  and  even  covering  the 
whole  tile,  (often  to  the  depth  of  a  foot,)  with  tan-bark, 
turf,  coarse  gravel,  etc.,  is  in  no  wise  to  be  commended ; 
and,  while  the  objections  to  it  are  not  necessarily  very 
grave  in  all  cases,  it  always  introduces  an  element  of  in- 
security, and  it  is  a  waste  of  money,  if  nothing  worse. 

The  tile  layer  need  not  concern  himself  with  the  question 
of  affording  entrance  room  for  the  water.  Let  him,  so  far 
as  the  rude  materials  at  hand  will  allow,  make  the  joints 
perfectly  tight,  and  when  the  water  comes,  it  will  find 
ample  flaws  in  his  work,  and  he  will  have  been  a  good 
workman  if  it  do  not  find  room  to  flow  in  a  current,  car- 
rying particles  of  dirt  with  it,  unless  muslin  is  used. 

In  ditches  in  which  water  is  running  at  the  time  of  lay- 
ing the  tiles,  the  process  should  follow  closely  after  the 
grading,  and  the  stream  may  even  be  dammed  back,  sec- 
tion after  section,  (a  plugged  tile  being  placed  under  the 
dam,  to  be  afterwards  replaced  by  a  free  one,)  and  graded, 
laid  and  covered  before  the  water  breaks  in.  There  is  one 
satisfaction  in  this  kind  of  work, — that,  while  it  is  difficult 
to  lay  the  drain  so  thoroughly  well  as  in  a  dry  ditch,  the 
amount  of  water  is  sufficient  to  overcome  any  slight  ten- 
dency to  obstruction. 

Connections. — As  has  been  before  stated,  lateral  drains 
should  always  enter  at  the  top  of  the  main.  Even  in  the 
mobt  shallow  work,  the  slightly  decreased  depth  of  the 
lateral,  which  this  arrangement  requires,  is  well  compen- 
sated for  by  the  free  outlet  which  it  secures.  (See  Chap.  12. ) 

After  the  tile  of  the  main,  which  is  to  receive  a  side 
drain,  has  been  fitted  to  its  place,  and  the  point  of  junc- 
tion mai'ked,  it  should  be  taken  up  and  perforated ;  then 
the  end  of  the  tile  of  the  lateral  should  be  so  trimmed  as 


lei 


DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AttD    HEALTH. 


to  fit  the  hole  as  accurately  as  may  be,  the  large  tile  re* 
placed  in  its  position,  and  the  small  one  laid  on  it, — 
reaching  over  to  the  floor  of  the  lateral  ditch.  Then  con- 
nect it  with  the  lateral  as  previously  laid,  fill  up  solidly 
the  space  under  the  tile  which  reaches  over  to  the  top 
of  the  main,  (so  that  it  cannot  become  disturbed  in  fill- 
ing,) and  lay  bits  of  tile,  or  other  suitable  covering, 
around  the  connecting  joint.* 

When  the  main  drain  is  laid  with  collars,  it  should  be 
so  arranged  that,  by 
substituting  a  full 
tile  in  the  place  of 
the  collar,  —  leav- 
ing, within  it,  a 
space  between  the  _ 

Fig.    33.— LATERAL    DR 

smaller     pipes,  —  a 
connection  can    be   made  with  this  larger  tile,  as  is  rep- 
resented in  Figures  33  and  34. 

Silt  Basins. I — should  be  used  at  all  points  where  a  drain, 
after  running  for  any  considerable  distance  at  a  certain 
rate  of  fall,  changes  to  a  less  rapid  fall, — unless,  indeed, 

the  diminished  fall  be  still 
sufficiently  great  for  the 
removal  of  silty  matters, 
(say  two  feet  or  more  in  a 
hundred).  They  may  be 
made  in  any  manner  which 
will  secure  a  stoppage  of 
the  direct  current,  and  afford  room  below  the  floor  of  the 
tile  for  the  deposit  of  the  silt  which  the  water  has  carried 
in  suspension ;  and  they  may  be  of  any  suitable  material ; 
— even  a  sound  flour  barrel  will  serve  a  pretty  good 

*When  such  covering  is  used,  it  is  well  to  cover  them  with  a  mortar  of  wet 
Clay,  to  keep  them  in  place  until  the  ditches  are  tilled. 
tSee  a  note  on  Silt-basins  at  the  eiid  of  this  chapter. 


Fig.  34. — SECTIONAL  VIEW   OF   JOINT. 


HOW   TO    MAKE   THE    DRAINS. 


135 


purpose  for  many  years. 
The  most  complete  form 
of  basin  is  that  repre- 
sented in  Figure  24. 

When  the  object  is 
only  to  afford  room  for 
the  collection  of  the  silt 
of  a  considerable  length 
of  drain,  and  it  is  not 
thought  worth  while  to 
keep  open  a  communica- 
tion with  the  surface,  for 
purposes  of  inspection,  a 
square  box  of  brick 
work,  (Fig.  .'>.">,)  having 
a  depth  of  one  and  a 
half  or  two  feet  below 
the  floor  of  the  drain, — 
tiles  for  the  drains  being 
built  in  the  walls,  and 
the  top  covered  with  a 
broad  stone,  —  will  an- 
swer very  well. 

A  good  sort  of  basin,  to  reach 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  may 
be  made  of  large,  vitrified  drain 
pipes, — such  as  are  used  for  town 
sewerage, — having  a  diameter  of 
from  six  to  twelve  inches,  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  the  work. 
This  basin  is  shown  in  Figure  36. 

Figure  37  represents  a  basin  made 
of  a  0-inch  tile,  —  similar  to  that 
described  on  page  130,  for  turning  a 

short    corner.      A    larger  basin   of 

.  .         •,?  i     -r      FiS-  36-— SILT-BASIN 

the  same  size,  cheaper  than  it  built         VITKIFIEI>  FLPE 


136  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

of  brick,  may  be  made  by  using  a  large  vitrified  drain 
pipe  in  the  place  of  the  one  shown  in  the  cut.  These 
vitrified  pipes  may  be  perforated  in  the 
manner  described  for  the  common  tile. 
In  laying  the  main  line  C",  (Fig.  21,) 
an  underground  basin  of  brick  work, 
(Fig.  35,)  or  its  equivalent,  should  be 
placed  at  stake  7,  because  at  that  point 
the  water,  which  has  been  flowing  on  an 
inclination  of  1.09,  2.00  and  2.83  per  100, 

Fig.  37.— TILE  SILT-  continues  its  course  over  the  much  less 
BASIN.  fau  Of  only  o  56  per  loo 

If,  among  the  tiles  which  have  passed  the  inspection, 
there  are  some  which,  from  over  burning,  are  smaller  than 
the  average,  they  should  be  laid  at  the  upper  ends  of  the 
laterals.  The  cardinal  rule  of  the  tile  layer  should  be 
never  to  have  a  single  tile,  in  the  finished  drain  of  smaller 
size,  of  more  irregular  shape,  or  less  perfectly  laid,  than 
any  tile  above  it.  If  there  is  to  be  any  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  drain,  at  different  points,  let  it  grow  better 
as  it  approaches  the  outlet  and  has  a  greater  length 
above  depending  upon  its  action. 

Covering  the  Tiles,  and  Filling-in  the  Ditches.— The 

best  material  for  covering  the  tiles  is  that  which  will  the 
most  completely  surround  them,  so  as  to  hold  them  in 
their  places ;  will  be  the  least  likely  to  have  passages  for 
the  flow  of  streams  of  water  into  the  joints,  and  will  af- 
ford the  least  silt  to  obstruct  the  drain.  Clay  is  the  best 
of  all  available  materials,  because  it  is  of  the  most  uniform 
character  throughout  its  mass,  and  may  be  most  perfectly 
compacted  around  the  tiles.  As  has  been  before  stated, 
all  matters  which  are  subject  to  decay  are  objectionable, 
because  they  will  furnish  fine  matters  to  enter  the  joints, 
and  by  their  decrease  of  bulk,  may  leave  openings  in  the 
earth  through  which  streams  of  muddy  water  may  find 


HOW   TO   MAKE  THE   DRAINS.  137 

their  way  into  the  tiles.  Gravel  is  bad,  and  will  remain 
bad  until  its  spaces  are  filled  with  fine  dirt  deposited  by 
water,  which,  leaving  only  a  part  of  its  impurities  here, 
carries  the  rest  into  the  drain.  A  gravelly  loam,  free 
from  roots  or  other  organic  matter,  if  it  is  strong  enough 
to  be  worked  into  a  ball  when  wet,  will  answer  a  very 
good  purpose.  Fine  sand  is  also  good. 

Ordinarily,  the  earth  which  was  thrown  out  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  which  now  lies  at  the  top  of  the 
dirt  heap,  is  the  best  to  be  returned  about  the  tiles,  being 
first  freed  from  any  stones  it  may  contain  which  are  large 
enough  to  break  or  disturb  the  tiles  in  falling  on  to  them. 

If  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  consists  of  quicksand  or 
other  silty  matters,  clay  or  some  other  suitable  earth 
should  be  sought  in  that  which  was  excavated  from  a  less 
depth,  or  should  be  brought  from  another  place.  A  thin 
layer  of  this  having  been  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  when  grading,  a  slight  covering  of  the  same  about 
the  tiles  will  so  encase  thorn  as  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  the  more  "  slippy"  soil. 

The  first  covering  of  fine  earth,  free  from  stones  and 
clods,  should  be  sprinkled  gently  over  the  tiles,  no  full 
shovelfuls  being  thrown  on  to  them  until  they  are  covered 
at  least  six  inches  dee]).  When  the  filling  has  readied  a 
bight  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches,  the  men  may  get 
into  the  ditch  and  tramp  it  down  evenly  and  regularly, 
not  treading  too  hard  in  any  one  place  at  first.  When 
thus  lightly  compacted  about  the  tile,  so  that  any  further 
pressure  cannot  displace  them,  the  filling  should  be  re- 
peatedly rammed,  (the  more  the  better,)  by  two  men 
standing  astride  the  ditch,  facing  each  other,  and  working 
a  maul,  such  as  is  shown  in  Figure  38,  and  which  may 
weigh  from  80  to  100  pounds. 

Those  to  whom  this  recommendation  is  new,  will,  doubt- 
less, think  it  unwise.  The  only  reply  to  their  objection 
tnust  be  that  others  who  shared  their  opinion,  have,  by 


138 


DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 


long  observation  and  experience,  been  convinced  of  its 
correctness.  They  may  practically  convince  themselves 
of  the  value  of  this  sort  of  covering  by  a  simple  and  in- 
expensive experiment  :  Take  two  large,  water-tight  hogs- 
heads, bore  through  the  side  of  each,  a  few  inches  from 
the  bottom,  a  hole  just  large  enough 
to  admit  a  1^-inch  tile  ;  cover  the  bot- 
tom to  the  hight  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  hole  with  strong,  wet  clay,  beaten 
to  a  hard  paste  ;  on  this,  lay  a  line  of 
pipes  and  collars,  —  the  inner  end  sealed 
with  putty,  and  the  tile  which  passes 
through  the  hole  so  wedged  about  with 
putty,  that  no  water  could  pass  out 
between  it  and  the  outside  of  the  hole. 
Cover  the  tile  in  one  hogshead  with 
loose  gravel,  and  then  fill  it  to  the  top 
with  loose  earth.  Cover  the  tile  in  the 
other,  twenty  inches  deep,  with  ordi- 
nary stiff  clay,  (not  wet  enough  to 
puddle,  but  sufficiently  moist  to  pack 
well,)  and  ram  it  thoroughly,  so  as 
to  make  sure  that  the  tiles  are  com- 
pletely clasped,  and  that  there  is  no 
crack  nor  crevice  through  which  water 
can  trickle,  and  then  fill  this  hogs- 
head  to  the  top  with  earth,  of  the 
same  character  with  that  used  in 
the  other  case.  These  hogsheads  shoidd  stand  where 
the  water  of  a  small  roof,  (as  that  of  a  hog-pen,)  may 
be  led  into  them,  by  an  arrangement  which  shall  give 
an  equal  quantity  to  each  ;  —  this  will  give  them  rather 
more  than  the  simple  rain-fall,  but  will  leave  them 
exposed  to  the  usual  climatic  changes  of  the  season.  A 
vessel,  of  a  capacity  of  a  quart  or  more,  should  be  con- 
nected with  each  outlet,  and  covered  from  the  dust,—* 


Fig.  88.—  MAUL  FOK 
RAMMING. 


HOW  TO   MAKB  THE   DRAINS.  139 

these  will  act  as  silt-basins.  During  the  first  few  storms 
the  water  will  flow  off  much  more  freely  from  the  first 
barrel ;  but,  little  by  little,  the  second  one,  as  the  water 
finds  its  way  through  the  clay,  and  as  the  occasional  dry. 
ing  and  repeated  filtration  make  it  more  porous,  will  in- 
crease in  its  flow  until  it  will,  by  the  end  of  the  season, 
or,  at  latest,  by  the  end  of  the  second  season,  drain  as 
well  as  the  first,  if,  indeed,  that  be  not  by  this  time  some- 
what obstructed  with  silt.  The  amount  of  accumulation 
in  the  vessels  at  the  outlet  will  show  which  process  has 
best  kept  back  the  silt,  and  the  character  of  the  deposit 
will  show  which  would  most  probably  be  carried  off  by 
the  gentle  flow  of  water  in  a  nearly  level  drain. 

It  is  no  argument  against  this  experiment  that  its  results 
cannot  be  determined  even  in  a  year,  for  it  is  not  pretended 
that  drains  laid  in  compact  clay  will  dry  land  so  com- 
pletely during  the  first  month  as  those  which  give  more 
free  access  to  the  water ;  only  that  they  will  do  so  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  ;  and  that,  as  drainage  is  a  work 
for  all  time,  (practically  as  lasting  as  the  farm  itself,)  the 
importance  of  permanence  and  good  working  for  long 
years  to  come,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  that  of  the  tem- 
porary good  results  of  one  or  two  seasons,  accompanied 
with  doubtful  durability. 

It  has  been  argued  that  surface  water  will  be  more 
readily  removed  by  drains  having  porous  filling.  Even  if 
this  were  true  to  any  important  degree, — which  it  is  not, — 
it  would  be  an  argument  against  the  plan,  for  the  remedy 
would  be  worse  than  the  disease.  If  the  water  flow  from 
the  surface  down  into  the  drain,  it  will  not  fail  to  carry 
dirt  with  it,  and  instead  of  the  clear  water,  which  alone 
should  rise  into  the  tiles  from  below,  we  should  have  a 
trickling  flow  from  above,  muddy  \\  ith  wasted  manure 
and  silty  earth. 

The  remaining  filling  of  the  ditch  is  a  matter  of  sim- 
Vie  labor,  and  may  be  done  in  whatever  way  may  be  most 


140  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

economical  under  the  circumstances  of  the  work.  If  the 
amount  to  be  filled  is  considerable,  so  that  it  is  desirable 
to  use  horse  power,  the  best  way  will  be  to  use  a  scraper, 
such  as  is  represented  in  Figure  39,  which  is  a  strongly 
ironed  plank,  G  feet  long  and  18  inches  wide,  sharp  shod 
at  one  side,  and  supplied  with  handles  at  the  other.  It  is 
propelled  by  menns  of  the  curved  rods,  which  are  at- 
tached to  its  under  side  by  flexible  joints.  These  rods 
are  connected  by  a  chain  which  has  links  large  enough  to 


Fig.  39.— BOARD    SCKAPEK    FOR   FILLING   DITCHES. 

receive  the  hook  of  an  ox-chain.  This  scraper  may  be 
used  for  any  straight-forward  work  by  attaching  the  power 
to  the  middle  of  the  chain.  By  moving  the  hook  a  few- 
links  to  the  right  or  left,  it  will  act  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  the  mould-board  of  a  plow,  and  will,  if  skill- 
fully handled,  shoot  the  filling  rapidly  into  the  ditch. 

If  the  work  is  done  bv  hand,  mix  the  surface  soil  and 
turf  with  the  subsoil  filling  for  the  whole  depth.  If  with 
a  scraper,  put  the  surface  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  loose 
filling,  and  the  subsoil  at  the  top,  as  this  will  be  an  imita- 
tion, for  the  limited  area  of  the  drains,  of  the  process  of 
"  trenching,"  which  is  used  in  garden  cultivation. 

When  the  ditches  are  filled,  they  will  be  higher  than 
the  adjoining  land,  and  it  will  be  well  to  make  them  still 
more  so  by  digging  or  plowing  out  a  small  trench  at  each 
side  of  the  drain,  throwing  the  earth  against  the  mound, 
which  will  prevent  surface  water,  (during  heavy  rains,) 
from  running  into  the  loose  filling  before  it  is  sufficiently 


HOW    TO    MAKE    THE    DRAINS. 


141 


settled.     A  cross  section  of  a  filled  drain  provided  with 
these  ditches  is  shown  in  Figure  40. 

In  order  that  the  silt-basins  may  be  examined,  and  their 
accumulations  of  earth  re- 
moved, during  the  early  ac- 
tion of  the  drains,  those  parts 
of  the  ditches  which  are  over 
them  may  be  left  open,  care 
being  taken,  by  cutting  sur- 
face ditches  around  them,  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  water 
from  above.  During  this  time 
the  covers  of  the  basins 
should  be  kept  on,  and  should 
be  covered  with  inverted  sods 
to  keep  loose  dirt  from  get- 
ting into  them. 


40. — CROSS-SECTION  OF 
DITCH  (FILLED),  WITH  FUK- 
UOW  AT  EACH  SIDE. 


Collecting  the  Water  of  Springs, — The  lateral  which 

connects  with  the  main  drain,  A,  (Fig.  20,)  at  the  point 
m,  and  which  is  to  take  the  water  of  the  spring  at  the 
head  of  the  brook,  should  not  be  opened  until  the  main 
has  been  completed  and  filled  in  to  the  silt-b:isin, — the 
brook  having,  meantime,  been  carried  over  the  other 
ditches  in  wooden  troughs.  This  lateral  may  now  be 
made  in  the  following  way:  Dig  down  to  the  tile  of 
the  main,  and  carry  the  lateral  ditch  back,  a  distance  of 
ten  feet.  In  the  bottom  of  this,  place  a  wooden  trough, 
at  least  six  feet  long,  laid  at  such  depth  that  its  channel 
shall  be  on  the  exact  grade  required  for  laying  the  tiles, 
and  lay  long  straw,  (held  down  by  weights,)  lengthwise 
within  it.  Make  an  opening  in  the  tile  of  the  main  and 
connect  the  trough  with  it.  The  straw  will  prevent  any 
coarse  particles  of  earth  from  being  carried  into  the  tile, 
and  the  flow  of  the  water  will  be  sufficient  to  carry  on  to 
the  silt-basin  any  finer  matters.  Now  open  the  ditch  to 


142  DRAINING    FOB   PROFIT   AND 

and  beyotd  the  spring,  digging  at  least  a  foot  below  the 
grade  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  filling  to  the  exact 
grade  with  small  stones,  broken  bricks,  or  other  suitable 
material.  Lay  the  tiles  from  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch 
across  the  stone  work,  and  down  to  the  wooden  trough. 
Now  spread  a  sufficient  layer  of  wood  shavings  over  the 
stone  work  to  keep  the  earth  from  entering  it,  cover 
the  tiles  and  fill  in  the  ditch,  as  before  directed,  and  then 
remove  the  straw  from  the  wooden  trough  and  lay  tile8 
in  its  place.  In  this  way,  the  water  of  even  a  strong 
spring  may  be  carried  into  a  finished  drain  without  danger. 
In  laying  the  tile  which  crosses  the  stone  work,  it  is  well 
to  use  full  2^-inch  tiles  in  the  place  of  collars,  leaving  the 
joints  of  these,  and  of  the  1^-inch  tiles,  (which  should 
join  near  the  middle  of  the  collar  tile,)  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  open,  to  give  free  entrance  to  the  water. 

The  stone  and  tile  drain,  Ht  I,  is  simply  dug  out  to  the 
surface  of  the  rock,  if  this  is  not  more  than  two  feet  below 
the  grade  of  the  upper  ends  of  the  laterals  with  which  it 
connects,  and  then  filled  up  with  loose  stones  to  the  line  of 
grade.  If  the  stones  are  small,  so  as  to  form  a  good  bottom 
for  the  tiles,  they  may  be  laid  directly  upon  it ;  if  not,  a 
bottom  for  them  may  be  made  of  narrow  strips  of  cheap 
boards.  Before  filling,  the  tiles  and  stone  work  should  be 
covered  with  shavings,  and  the  filling  above  these  should 
consist  of  a  strong  clay,  which  will  remain  in  place  after 
the  shavings  rot  away. 

Amending  the  Map, — When  the  tiles  are  laid,  and  be 
fore  they  are  covered,  all  deviations  of  the  lines,  as  in  pass 
ing  around  large  stones  and  other  obstructions,  which 
may  have  prevented  the  exact  execution  of  the  original  plan, 
and  the  location  and  kind  of  each  underground  silt-basin 
ihould  also  be  carefully  noted,  so  that  they  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  map,  for  future  reference,  in  the  event  of  re- 
pairs becoming  necessary.  In  a  short  time  after  the  work 


HOW   TO    MAKE  TIIE   DRAINS.  143 

is  finished,  the  surface  of  the  field  will  show  no  trace  of 
the  lines  of  drain,  and  it  should  be  possible,  in  case  of 
need,  to  find  any  point  of  the  drains  with  precision,  so  that 
no  labor  will  be  lost  in  digging  for  it.  It  is  much  cheapei 
to  measure  over  the  surface  than  to  dig  a  four  foot  trench 
through  the  ground. 


NOTE.— (Third  edition.)  All  that  is  said  in  the  former  chapter  on  tbe 
subject  of  silt  basins,  should  be  heeded  ouly  as  modified  by  what  is 
said  on  the  same  subject  in  Chapter  XII  and  its  supplemental  note. 


CHAPTER  V. 


HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE  OF  DRAINS  AND  DRAINED 
LAND. 

So  far  as  tile  drains  are  concerned,  if  they  are  once  well 
laid,  and  if  the  silt-basins  have  been  emptied  of  silt  until 
the  water  has  ceased  to  deposit  it,  they  need  no  care  nor 
attention,  beyond  an  occasional  cleaning  of  the  outlet 
brook.  Now  and  then,  from  the  proximity  of  willows,  or 
thrifty,  young,  water-loving  trees,  a  drain  will  be  obstruct- 
ed by  roots ;  or,  during  the  first  few  years  after  the  work 
is  finished,  some  weak  point, — a  badly  laid  tile,  a  loosely 
fitted  connection  between  the  lateral  and  a  main,  or  an 
accumulation  of  silt  coming  from  an  undetected  and  per- 
sistent vein  of  quicksand, — will  be  developed,  and  repairs 
will  have  to  be  made.  Except  for  the  slight  danger 
from  roots,  which  must  always  be  guarded  against  to  the 
extent  of  allowing  no  young  trees  of  the  dangerous  class 
to  grow  near  a  drain  through  which  a  constant  stream  of 
water  flows,  it  may  be  fairly  assumed  that  drains  which 
have  been  kept  in  order  for  four  or  five  years  have  passed 
the  danger  of  interruption  from  any  cause,  and  they  may 
be  considered  entirely  safe. 

A  drain  will  often,  for  some  months  after  it  is  laid,  run 
muddy  water  after  rains.  Sometimes  the  early  deposit  of 
•ilt  will  nearly  fill  the  file,  and  it  will  take  the  water  o' 
144 


HOW  TO  TAKE  CABB   OF  DRAINS.  145 

several  storms  to  wash  it  out.  If  the  tiles  have  been  laid 
in  packed  clay,  they  cannot  long  receive  silt  from  without, 
and  that  which  makes  the  flow  turbid,  may  be  assumed  tt 
come  from  the  original  deposit  in  the  conduit.  Examina- 
tions of  newly  laid  drains  nave  developed  many  instances 
where  tiles  were  at  first  half  filled  with  silt,  and  three 
months  later  were  entirely  clean.  The  muddiness  of  the 
flow  indicates  what  the  doctors  call  "  an  effort  of  nature 
to  relieve  herself,"  and  nature  may  be  trusted  to  succeed, 
at  least,  until  she  abandons  the  effort.  If  we  are  sure  that 
a  drain  has  been  well  laid,  we  need  feel  no  anxiety  because 
it  fails  to  take  the  water  from  the  ground  so  completely 
as  it  should  do,  until  it  settles  into  a  flow  of  clear  water 
after  the  heaviest  storms. 

In  the  case  of  an  actual  stoppage,  which  will  generally 
be  indicated  by  the  "  bursting  out "  of  the  drain,  i.  e.,  the 
wetting  of  the  land  as  though  there  were  a  spring  under 
it,  or  as  though  its  water  had  no  underground  outlet, 
(which  is  the  fact,)  it  will  be  necessary  to  lay  open  the 
drain  until  the  obstruction  is  found. 

In  this  work,  the  real  value  of  the  map  will  be  shown, 
by  the  facility  which  it  offers  for  finding  any  point  of  any 
line  of  drains,  and  the  exact  locality  of  the  junctions  with 
the  mains,  and  of  the  silt-basins.  In  laying  out  the  plan 
on  the  ground,  and  in  making  his  map,  the  surveyor  will 
have  had  recourse  to  two  or  more  fixed  points ;  one  of 
them,  in  our  example,  (fig.  21,)  would  probably  be  the 
center  of  the  main  silt-basin,  and  one,  a  drilled  hole  or 
other  mark  on  the  rock  at  the  north  side  of  the  field.  By 
staking  out  on  the  ground  the  straight  line  connecting 
these  two  points,  and  drawing  a  corresponding  line  on  the 
map,  we  shall  have  a  base-line,  from  which  it  will  be  easy, 
by  perpendicular  offsets,  to  determine  on  the  ground  any 
point  upon  the  map.  By  laying  a  small  square  on  the 
jaap,  with  one  of  its  edges  coinciding  with  the  base-line, 
and  moving  it  on  this  line  until  the  other  edge  meets  the 
7 


148  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

desired  point,  we  fix,  at  the  angle  of  the  square,  the  point 
on  the  base-line  from  which  we  are  to  measure  the  length 
of  the  offset.  The  next  step  is  to  find,  (by  the  scale,)  the 
distance  of  this  point  from  the  nearest  end  of  the  base- 
line, and  from  the  point  sought.  Then  measure  off,  in  the 
field,  the  corresponding  distance  on  the  base-line,  and,  from 
the  point  thus  found,  measure  on  a  line  perpendicular  to 
the  base  line,  the  length  of  the  offset;  the  point  thug 
indicated  will  be  the  locality  sought.  In  the  same  manner, 
find  another  point  on  the  same  drain,  to  give  the  range  on 
which  to  stake  it  out.  From  this  line,  the  drains  which 
run  parallel  to  it,  can  easily  be  found,  or  it  may  be  used 
as  a  base-line,  from  which,  by  measuring  offsets,  to  find 
other  points  near  it. 

The  object  of  this  staking  is,  to  find,  in  an  inexpensive 
and  easy  way,  the  precise  position  of  the  drains,  for  which 
it  would  be  otherwise  necessary  to  grope  in  the  dark, 
verifying  our  guesses  by  digging  four-foot  trenches,  at 
random. 

If  there  is  a  silt-bnsin,  or  a  junction  a  short  distance  be- 
.ow  the  point  where  the  water  shows  itself,  this  will  be  the 
best  place  to  dig.  If  it  is  a  silt-basin,  we  shall  probably 
find  that  this  has  filled  up  with  dirt,  and  has  stopped  the 
flow.  In  this  case  it  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  a  point 
of  the  drain  ten  feet  below  it  examined.  If  this  is  found 
to  be  clear,  a  long,  stout  wire  may  be  pushed  up  as  far 
as  the  basin  and  worked  back  and  forth  until  the  passage 
is  cleared.  Then  replace  the  tile  below,  and  try  with  the 
wire  to  clean  the  tiles  above  the  basin,  so  as  to  tap  the 
water  above  the  obstruction.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  or 
if  the  drain  ten  feet  below  is  clogged,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  uncover  the  tiles  in  both  directions  until  an  opening  ia 
found,  and  to  take  up  and  relay  the  whole.  If  the  wet- 
ting of  the  ground  is  sufficient  to  indicate  that  there  if 
much  water  in  the  drain,  only  five  or  six  tiles  should  be 
taken  up  at  a  time,  cleaned  and  relaid, — commencing  at 


HOW   TO  TAKE   CARE   OF  DRAINS.  147 

the  .ower  end, — in  order  that,  when  the  water  ooamences 
to  flow,  it  may  not  disturb  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  for  the 
whole  distance. 

If  the  point  opened  is  at  a  junction  with  the  main,  ex- 
amine both  the  main  and  the  lateral,  to  see  which  is 
stopped,  and  proceed  with  one  or  the  other,  as  directed 
above.  In  doing  this  work,  care  should  be  taken  to  send 
as  little  muddy  water  as  possible  into  the  drain  below,  and 
to  allow  the  least  possible  disturbance  of  the  bottom. 

If  silt-basins  have  been  placed  at  those  points  at  which 
the  fall  diminishes,  the  obstruction  will  usually  be  found  to 
occur  at  the  outlets  of  these,  from  a  piling  up  of  the  silt  in 
front  of  them,  and  to  extend  only  a  short  distance  below  and 
above.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  up  the  tiles  until  they 
are  found  to  be  entirely  clean,  for,  if  they  are  only  one- 
half  or  one-third  full,  they  will  probably  be  washed  clean 
Dy  the  rush  of  water,  when  that  which  is  accumulated 
above  is  tapped.  The  work  should  be  done  in  settled  fair 
weather,  and  the  ditches  should  remain  open  until  the  effect 
of  the  flow  has  been  observed.  If  the  tiles  are  made 
thoroughly  clean  by  the  time  that  the  accumulated  water 
has  run  off,  say  in  24  hours,  they  may  be  covered  up ;  if 
not,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  them  again,  and  clean 
them  by  hand.  When  the  work  is  undertaken  it  should 
be  thoroughly  done,  so  that  the  expense  of  a  new  opening 
need  not  be  again  incurred. 

It  is  worse  than  useless  to  substitute  larger  sizes  of  tiles 
for  those  which  are  taken  up.  The  obstruction,  if  by  silt, 
is  the  result  of  a  too  sluggish  flow,  and  to  enlarge  the 
area  of  the  conduit  would  only  increase  the  difficulty.  If 
the  tiles  are  too  small  to  carry  the  full  flow  which  follows 
a  heavy  rain,  they  will  be  very  unlikely  to  become  choked, 
for  the  water  will  then  have  sufficient  force  to  wash  them 
clean,  while  if  they  are  much  larger  than  necessary,  a  de- 
posit of  silt  to  one  half  of  their  height  will  make  a  broad, 


148  DRAINING   FOB  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

flat  bod  for  the  stream,  which   will  run  with  much  less 
force,  and  will  be  more  likely  to  increase  the  deposit. 

If  the  drains  are  obstructed  by  the  roots  of  willows,  or 
other  trees,  the  proprietor  must  decide  whether  he  will 
sacrifice  the  trees  or  the  drains ;  both  he  cannot  keep,  un- 
less he  chooses  to  go  to  the  expense  of  laying  in  cement 
all  of  the  drains  which  carry  constant  streams,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  at  least  50  feet  from  the  dangerous  trees.  The 
trouble  from  trees  is  occasionally  very  great,  but  its  occur- 
rence is  too  rare  for  general  consideration,  and  must  be 
met  in  each  case  with  such  remedies  as  circumstances  sug- 
gest as  the  best. 

The  gratings  over  the  outlets  of  silt-basins  which  open 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  sometimes,  during  the 
first  year  of  the  drainage,  obstructed  by  a  fungoid  growth 
which  collects  on  the  cross  bars.  This  should  be  occasional- 
ly rubbed  off.  Its  character  is  not  very  well  understood, 
and  it  is  rarely  observed  in  old  drains.  The  decomposition 
of  the  grass  bands  which  are  used  to  cover  the  joints  of 
the  larger  tiles  may  encourage  its  formation. 

If  the  surface  soil  have  a  good  proportion  of  sand, 
gravel,  or  organic  matter,  so  as  to  give  it  the  consistency 
which  is  known  as  "  loamy,"  it  will  bear  any  treatment 
which  it  may  chance  to  receive  in  cultivation,  or  as  pasture 
land;  but  if  it  be  a  decided  clay  soil,  no  amount  of  drain- 
ing will  enable  us  to  work  it,  or  to  turn  cattle  upon  it 
when  it  is  wet  with  recent  rains.  It  will  much  sooner 
become  dry,  because  of  the  drainage,  and  may  much  sooner 
be  trodden  upon  without  injury;  but  wet  clay  cannot  be 
worked  or  walked  over  without  being  more  or  less  pud- 
dled, and,  thereby,  injured  for  a  long  time. 

No  matter  how  thoroughly  heavy  clay  pasture  lands 
may  be  under-drained,  the  cattle  should  be  removed  from 
them  when  !.t  rains,  and  kept  off  until  they  are  compara- 
tively dry  Neglect  of  this  precaution  has  probably  led 


HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE  OF  DBAIXS.         149 

to  more  disappointment  as  to  the  effects  of  drainage  than 
any  other  circumstances  connected  with  it.  The  injury 
from  this  cause  does  not  extend  to  a  great  depth,  and  in 
the  Northern  States  it  would  always  be  overcome  by  the 
frosts  of  a  single  winter ;  as  has  been  before  stated,  it  is 
confined  to  stiff  clay  soils,  but  as  these  are  the  soils  which 
most  need  draining,  the  warning  given  is  important. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


WHAT  DRAINING  COSTS. 

Draining  is  expensive  work.  This  fact  must  be  accepted 
as  a  very  stubborn  one,  by  every  man  who  proposes  to 
undertake  the  improvement.  There  is  no  royal  road  tc 
tile-laying,  and  the  beginner  should  count  the  cost  at  the 
outset.  A  good  many  acres  of  virgin  land  at  the  West 
might  be  bought  for  what  must  be  paid  to  get  an  efficient 
system  of  drains  laid  under  a  single  acre  at  home.  Any 
man  who  stops  at  this  point  of  the  argument  will  probably 
move  West, — or  do  nothing. 

Yet,  it  is  susceptible  of  demonstration  that,  even  at  the 
West,  in  those  localities  where  Indian  Corn  is  worth  as 
much  as  fifty  cents  per  bushel  at  the  farm,  it  will  pay  to 
drain,  in  the  best  manner,  all  such  land  as  is  described  in 
the  first  chapter  of  this  book  as  in  need  of  draining,  Argu- 
ments to  prove  this  need  not  be  based  at  all  on  cheapness 
of  the  work;  only  on  its  effects  and  its  permanence. 

In  filet,  so  far  as  draining  with  tiles  is  concerned,  cheap 
ness  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare,  for  the  reason  that  it  implies 
Homething  less  than  the  best  work,  a  compromise  between 
excellence  and  inferiority.  The  moment  that  we  come 
down  from  the  best  standard,  we  introduce  a  new  element 
into  the  calculation.  The  sort  of  tile  draining  which  it  is 
the  purpose  of  this  work  to  advocate  is  a  system  so  com- 
150 


WHAT  DRAINING  COSTS.  151 

plete  IL  every  particular,  that  it  may  be  considered  as  an 
absolutely  permanent  improvement.  During  the  first 
years  of  the  working  of  the  drains,  they  will  require  more 
or  less  attention,  and  some  expense  for  repairs ;  but,  in 
well  constructed  work,  these  will  be  very  slight,  and  will 
soon  cease  altogether.  In  proportion  as  we  resort  to  cheap 
devices,  which  imply  a  neglect  of  important  parts  of  the 
work,  and  a  want  of  thoroughness  in  the  whole,  the  ex- 
pense for  repairs  will  increase,  and  the  duration  of  the  use- 
fulness of  the  drains'will  diminish. 

Drains  which  are  permanently  well  made,  and  which 
will,  practically,  last  for  all  time,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
good  investment,  the  increased  crop  of  each  year,  paying 
a  good  interest  on  the  money  that  they  cost,  and  the 
money  being  still  represented  by  the  undiminished  value 
of  the  improvement.  In  such  a  case  the  draining  of  the 
land  may  be  said  to  cost,  not  $50  per  acre, — but  the  inter- 
est on  $50  each  year.  The  original  amount  is  well  in- 
vested, and  brings  its  yearly  dividend  as  surely  as  though 
it  were  represented  by  a  government  bond. 

With  badly  constructed  drains,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
case  is  quite  different.  In  buying  land  which  is  subject 
to  no  loss  in  quantity  or  quality,  the  fanner  considers,  not 
so  much  the  actual  cost,  as  the  relation  between  the  yearly 
interest  on  the  cost,  and  the  yearly  profit  on  the  crop, — 
knowing  that,  a  hundred  years  hence,  the  land  will  still  be 
worth  his  money. 

But  if  the  land  were  bounded  on  one  side  by  a  river  which 
yearly  encroached  some  feet  on  its  bank,  leaving  the  field 
a  little  smaller  after  each  freshet;  or  if,  every  spring,  some 
rods  square  of  its  surface  were  sure  to  be  covered  three  feet 
deep  with  stones  and  sand,  so  that  the  actual  value  of  the 
property  became  every  year  less,  the  purchaser  would 
compare  the  yearly  value  of  the  crops,  not  only  with  the 
interest  on  the  price,  but,  in  addition  to  this,  with  so  much 


152  DRAINING   FOE  PBOFTT  AND   HEALTH. 

of  the  prime  value  as  yearly  disappears  with  tho  destruc- 
tion of  the  land. 

It  is  exactly  so  with  the  question  of  the  cost  of  drain- 
age. If  the  work  is  insecurely  done,  and  is  liable,  in  five 
years  or  in  fifty,  to  become  worthless ;  the  increase  of  the 
'crops  resulting  from  it,  must  not  only  cover  the  yearly 
interest  on  the  cost,  but  the  yearly  depreciation  as  well. 
Therefore  what  may  seem  at  the  time  of  doing  the  work 
to  be  cheapness,  is  really  the  greatest  extravagance.  It  is 
like  buiding  a  brick  wall  with  clay  for  mortar.  The  bricks 
and  the  workmanship  cost  full  price,  and  the  small  saving  on 
the  mortar  will  topple  the  wall  over  in  a  few  years,  while, 
if  well  cemented,  it  would  have  lasted  for  centuries.  The 
cutting  and  filling  of  the  ditches,  and  the  purchase  and 
transportation  of  the  tiles,  will  cost  the  same  in  every 
case,  and  these  constitute  the  chief  cost ;  if  the  proper 
care  in  grading,  tile-laying  and  covering,  and  in  making 
outlets  be  stingily  withheld, — saving,  perhaps,  one-tenth 
of  the  expense, — what  might  have  been  a  permanent  im- 
provement to  the  land,  may  disappear,  and  the  whole  out- 
lay be  lost  in  ten  years.  A  saving  of  ten  per  cent,  in 
the  cost  will  have  lost  us  the  other  ninety  in  a  short  time. 

But,  while  cheapness  is  to  be  shunned,  economy  is  to  be 
sought  in  every  item  of  the  work  of  draining,  and  should 
be  studied,  by  proprietor  and  engineer,  from  the  first  ex- 
amination of  the  land,  to  the  throwing  of  the  last  shovel- 
ful of  earth  on  to  the  filling  of  the  ditch.  There  are  few 
operations  connected  with  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  in 
which  so  much  may  be  imperceptibly  lost  through  neglect, 
and  carelessness  about  little  details,  as  in  tile-draining.  In 
the  original  levelling  of  the  ground,  the  adjustment  of  the 
lines,  the  establishing  of  the  most  judicious  depth  and  in- 
clination at  each  point  of  the  drains,  the  disposition  of 
surface  streams  during  the  prosecution  of  the  work,  and  in 
the  width  of  the  excavation,  the  line  which  divides 
economy  and  wastefulness  is  extremely  narrow  and  the 


WHAT  DRAINING  COSTS.  153 

most  constant  vigilance,  together  with  the  best  judgment 
and  foresight,  are  needed  to  avoid  unnecessary  cost.  In 
the  laying  and  covering  of  the  tile,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  best  to  disregard  a  little  slowness  and  unnecessary  care 
on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  for  the  sake  of  the  most  per- 
fect security  of  the  work. 

Details  of  Cost, — The  items  of  the  work  of  drainage 
may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Engineering  and  Superintendence. 

2.  Digging  the  ditches. 

3.  Grading  the  bottoms. 

4.  Tile  and  tile-laying. 

5.  Covering  the  tile  and  filling  the  ditches. 

6.  Outlets  and  silt-basins. 

1.  Engineering  and  Superintendence, — It  is  not  easy  to 
say  what  would  be  the  proper  charge  for  this  item  of  the 
work.  In  England,  the  Commissioners  under  the  Drain- 
age Acts  of  Parliament,  and  the  Boards  of  Public  Works, 
fix  the  charge  for  engineering  at  $1.25  per  acre.  That  is  in  a 
country  where  the  extent  of  lands  undergoing  the  process 
of  draining  is  very  great,  enabling  one  person  to  superin- 
tend large  tracts  in  the  same  neighborhood  at  the  same 
time,  and  with  little  or  no  outlay  for  travelling  expenses. 
In  this  country,  where  the  improvement  is,  thus  far,  con- 
fined to  small  areas,  widely  separated  ;  and  where  there 
are  comparatively  few  engineers  who  make  a  specialty  of 
the  work,  the  charge  for  services  is  necessarily  much 
higher,  and  the  amount  expended  in  travelling  much 
greater.  In  most  cases,  the  proprietor  of  the  land  must 
qualify  himself  to  superintend  his  own  operations,  (with 
the  aid  of  a  country  surveyor,  or  a  railroad  engineer,in  the 
necessary  instrumental  work.)  As  draining  becomes  more 
general,  the  demand  for  professional  assistance  will,  with- 
out doubt,  cause  local  engineers  to  turn  their  attention  to 
the  subject,  and  their  services  may  be  more  cheaply  ob- 
tained. At  present,  it  would  probably  not  be  prudent  to 
7* 


154  DRAINING   FOB  PROFIT  ANP   HEALTH. 

estimate  the  cost  of  engineering  and  superintendence,  in- 
cluding the  time  and  skill  of  the  proprietor,  at  less  than 
$5  per  acre,  even  where  from  20  to  50  acres  are  to  be 
drained  at  once. 

2.  Digging  the  Ditches. — The  labor  required  for  tba 
various  operations  constitutes  the  principal  item  of  cost  in 
draining,  and  the  price  of  labor  is  now  so  diiferent  in  dif- 
ferent localities,  and  so  unsettled  in  all,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  a  rate  which  would  be  generally  fair.  It  will 
be  assumed  that  the  average  wages  of  day  laborers  of  the 
class  employed  in  digging  ditches,  is  $1.50  per  day,  and 
the  calculation  will  have  to  be  changed  for  different  dis- 
tricts, in  proportion  to  the  deviation  of  the  actual  rate  of 
wages  from  this  amount.  There  is  a  considerable  advan- 
tage in  having  the  work  done  at  some  season,  (as  after  the 
summer  harvest,  or  late  in  the  fall,)  when  wages  are  com- 
paratively low. 

The  cutting  of  the  ditches  should  always  be  let  by  the 
rod.  When  working  at  day's  work,  the  men  will  invariably 
open  them  wider  than  is  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  the 
greater  convenience  of  working,  and  the  extra  width 
causes  a  corresponding  waste  of  labor. 

A  4-foot  ditch,  in  most  soils,  need  be  only  20  inches  wide 
at  the  surface,  and  4  inches  at  the  bottom.  This  gives  a 
mean  width  of  12  inches,  and  requires  the  removal  of 
nearly  ££  cubic  yards  of  earth  for  each  rod  of  ditch ;  but 
an  increase  to  a  mean  width  of  16  inches,  (which  dsy 
workmen  will  usually  reach,  while  piece  workmen  almost 
never  will,)  requires  the  removal  of  3£  cubic  yards  to  the 
rod.  As  the  increased  width  is  usually  below  the  middle 
of  the  drain,  the  extra  earth  will  all  have  to  be  raised  from 
2  to  4  feet,  and  the  extra  f  yards  will  cost  as  much  as  a 
full  yard  taken  evenly  from  the  whole  side,  from  top  to 
bottom. 

In  clay  soils,  free  from  stones  or  u  hard  pan,"  bat  so 
stiff  as  to  require  considerable  picking,  ordinary  workmen, 


WHAT  DRAINING   COSTS. 


155 


after  a  little  practice,  will  be  able  to  dig  3|  rods  of  ditch 
per  day,  to  an  average  depth  of  3.80, — leaving  from  2  to 
3  inches  of  the  bottom  of  4-foot  ditches  to  be  finished  by 
the  graders.  This  makes  the  cost  of  digging  about  43 
cents  per  rod.  In  loamy  soil  the  cost  will  be  a  liltle  lesa 
than  this,  and  in  very  hard  ground,  a  little  more.  In 
sandy  and  peaty  soils,  the  cost  will  not  be  more  than  30 
cents.  Probably  43  cents  would  be  a  fair  average  for  soils 
requiring  drainage,  throughout  the  country. 

This  is  about  17  cents  for  each  yard  of  earth  removed. 

In  soft  ground,  the  caving  in  of  the  banks  will  require  a 
much  greater  mean  width  than  12  inches  to  be  thrown  out, 
and,  if  the  accident  could  not  have  been  prevented  by 
ordinary  care  on  the  part  of  the  workman,  (using  the  brac- 
ing boards  shown  in  Fig.  28,)  he  should  receive  extra  pay 
for  the  extra  work.  In  passing  around  large  stones  it  may 
also  be  necessary  to  increase  the  width. 

The  following  table  will  facilitate  the  calculations  for 
such  extra  work: 

CUBIC   YARDS   OF   EXCAVATION   IN    DITCHES   OF   VARIOUS   WIDTH. 


Length  of  Ditch. 

12  Inches 
Wide. 

18  Inches 
Wide. 

24  Inches 
Wide. 

30  Inches 
Wide. 

36  Inches 
Wide. 

1  Yard  
1  Rod  

Yds.     Feet. 
12 
2          12 

Yds.     Feet. 
18 
3         18 

Yds.     Feet. 
24 
4          24 

Yds.     Feet. 
1            3 
6           3 

Yds.     Feet. 
1           9 
7           9 

Men  will,  in  most  soils,  work  best  in  couples, — one 
shovelling  out  the  earth,  and  working  forward,  and  the 
other,  (moving  backward,)  loosening  the  earth  with  a 
spade  or  foot-pick,  (Fig.  41.)  In  stony  land,  the  men  should 
be  required  to  keep  their  work  well  closed  up, — excava 
ting  to  the  full  depth  as  they  go.  Then,  if  they  strike  a 
stone  too  large  to  be  taken  out  within  the  terms  of  their 
contract,  they  can  skip  a  sufficient  distance  to  pass  it,  and 
the  digging  of  the  omitted  part  may  be  done  by  a  faithful 
day  workman.  This  will  usually  be  cheaper  and  more 
iatisfactory  than  to  paj  the  contractors  for  extra  work. 


156  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

Concerning  the  amount  of  work  that  one  man  can  do 
in  a  day,  in  different  soils,  digging  ditches  4  feet  deep, 
French  says :  "  In  the  writer's  own  field, 
"  where  the  pick  was  used  to  loosen  the  lower 
"  two  feet  of  earth,  the  labor  of  opening  and 
il"  filling  drains  4  feet  deep,  and  of  the  mean 
"  width  of  14  inches,  all  by  hand  labor,  has 
"  been,  in  a  mile  of  drains,  being  our  first  ex- 
"  periments,  about  one  day's  labor  to  3  rods 
"  in  length.  The  excavated  earth  of  such  a 
"  drain  measures  not  quite  3  cubic  yards, 
"  (exactly,  2.85.)"  In  a  subsequent  work, 
in  a  sandy  soil,  two  men  opened,  laid,  and 
refilled  14  rods  in  one  day ; — the  mean  width 
being  12  inches.* 

"  In  the  same  season,  the  same  men  opened, 
"  laid,  and  filled  70  rods  of  4- foot  drain  of 
"  the  same  mean  width  of  12  inches,  in  the  Fig.  41.-FOOT 
"worst  kind  of  clay  soil,  where  the  pick  PICK- 
"  was  constantly  used.  It  cost  35  days'  labor  to  complete 
"  the  job,  being  50  cents  per  rod  for  the  labor  alone."  Or, 
under  the  foregoing  calculation  of  $1.50  per  day,  75 
cents  per  rod.  These  estimates,  in  common  with  nearly 
all  that  are  published,  are  for  the  entire  work  of  digging, 
grading,  tile-laying,  and  refilling.  Deducting  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  other  work,  the  result  will  be  about  as 
above  estimated ;  for  the  rough  excavation,  3^  rods  to  the 
day's  work,  costing,  at  $1.50  per  day,  43  cents  to  the  rod. 

Grading  is  the  removal  of  2  or  3  inches  in  depth,  and 
about  4  inches  in  width,  of  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch.  It  is  chiefly  done  with  the  finishing  scoop,  which, 
(being  made  of  t\vo  thin  plates,  one  of  iron  and  one  of 
steel,  welded  together,  the  iron  wearing  away  and  leaving 


*  Surely  such  soil  ought  not  to  require  thorough  draining;  where  men 
can  go  so  easily,  water  ought  to  find  its  way  alone. 


WHAT  DEAINING   COSTS.  151 

the  sharp  steel  edge  always  prominent,)  will  work  in  a 
ve-'y  hard  clay  without  the  aid  of  the  pick.  Three  men, — 
the  one  in  the  ditch  being  a  skillful  workman,  and  the 
others  helping  him  when  not  sighting  the  rods, — will  grade 
about  100  rods  per  day,  making  the  cost  about  6  cents  per 
rod.  Until  they  acquire  the  skill  to  work  thus  rapidly,  they 
should  not  be  urged  beyond  what  they  can  readily  do  in 
the  best  manner,  as  this  operation,  (which  is  the  preparing 
of  the  foundation  for  the  tiles,)  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  whole  work  of  draining. 

Tiles  and  Tile-Laying. — After  allowing  for  breakage,  it 
will  take  about  16  tiles  and  16  collars  to  lay  a  rod  in 
length  of  drain.  The  cost  of  these  will,  of  course,  be 
very  much  affected  by  the  considerations  of  the  nearness 
of  the  tile-kiln  and  the  cost  of  transportation.  They 
should,  in  no  ordinary  case,  cost,  delivered  on  the  ground, 
more  than  $8  per  thousand  for  1^-inch  tiles,  and  $4  per 
thousand  for  the  collars,  making  a  total  of  $12  for  both, 
equal  to  about  19  cents  per  rod.  The  laying  of  the  tiles, 
may  be  set  down  at  2  cents  per  rod, — based  on  a  skilled 
man  laying  100  rods  daily,  and  receiving  $2  per  day. 

Covering  and  filling  will  probably  cost  10  cents  per 
rod,  (if  the  scraper,  Fig.  39,  can  be  successfully  used  for 
the  rough  filling,  the  cost  will  be  reduced  considerably 
below  this.) 

The  four  items  of  the  cost  of  making  one  rod  of  lateral 
drain  are  as  follows : 

Digging  the  ditches •    -     .43 

Grading .06 

Tiles  and  laying -.21 

Covering  and  filling    -         -    .10 

.80  cts. 

If  the  drains  are  placed  at  intervals  of  40  feet,  there  are 
required  64  rods  to  the  acre, — this  at  80  cents  per  rod  will 
make  the  cost  per  acre, — for  the  above  items, — $51.20. 


158  DRAINING  FOR  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

How  much  should  be  allowed  for  maiu  drains,  outlets, 
and  silt-basins,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  as,  on  irregular 
ground,  no  two  fields  will  require  the  same  Amount  of  this 
sort  of  work.  On  very  even  land,  where  the  whole  sur- 
face, for  hundreds  of  acres,  slopes  gradually  in  one  or  two 
directions,  the  outlay  for  mains  need  not  be  more  than 
two  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  laterals.  This  would  allow 
laterals  of  a  uniform  length  of  800  feet  to  discharge  into 
the  main  line,  at  intervals  of  40  feet,  if  we  do  not  con- 
sider the  trifling  extra  cost  of  the  larger  tiles.  On  less 
regular  ground,  the  cost  of  mains  will  often  be  considera- 
bly more  than  two  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  laterals ; 
but  in  some  instances  the  increase  of  main  lines  will  be 
fully  compensated  for  by  the  reduction  in  the  length  of 
the  laterals,  which,  owing  to  rocks,  hills  too  steep  to  need 
drains  at  regular  intervals,  and  porous,  (gravelly,)  streaks 
in  the  land,  cannot  be  profitably  made  to  occupy  the  whole 
area  so  thoroughly.* 

Probably  7£  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  laterals  for 
mains,  outlets,  and  silt-basins  will  be  a  fair  average  allow- 
ance. 

This  will  bring  the  total  cost  of  the  work  to  about  $60 
per  acre,  made  up  as  follows : 

Cost  of  the  finished  drains  per  acre  -  -  $51.20 
7£  per  cent,  added  for  mains,  etc.  -  -  -  3.83 
Engineering  and  Superintendence  -  -  -  5.00 

Of  course  this  is  an  arbitrary  calculation,  an  estimate 
without  a  single  ascertained  fact  to  go  upon, — but  it  is  as 


*The  land  shown  in  Fig.  21,  is  especially  irregular,  and,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  illustrating  the  principles  up^n  which  the  work  should  be  done, 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  make  the  work  as  complete  as  possible  in  all 
particulars.  In  actual  work  on  a  field  similar  to  that,  it  would  not 
probably  be  good  economy  to  make  all  the  drains  laid  in  the  plan,  but 
as  deviations  from  the  plan  would  depend  on  conditions  which  cannot 
well  be  shown  on  such  a  small  scale,  they  are  disregarded,  and  the  sy» 
tern  of  drains  is  made  as  it  would  be  if  it  were  all  plain  sailing. 


WHAT  DRAINING    COSTS.  159 

close  as  it  can  be  made  to  what  would  probably  be  the 
cost  of  the  best  work,  on  average  ground,  at  the  present 
high  prices  of  labor  and  material.  Five  years  ago  the 
same  work  could  have  been  done  for  from  $40  to  $45  per 
acre,  and  it  will  be  again  cheaper  when  wages  fall,  and 
when  a  greater  demand  for  draining  tiles  shall  have  caused 
more  competition  in  their  manufacture.  With  a  large 
general  demand,  such  as  has  existed  in  England  for  the  last 
20  years,  they  would  now  be  sold  for  one-half  of  their  pre- 
sent price  here,  and  the  manufacture  would  be  more  profi- 
table, [This  estimate  was  made  in  1866.] 

There  are  many  light  lands  on  retentive  subsoils,  which 
could  be  drained,  at  present  prices,  for  $50  or  less  per  acre, 
and  there  are  others,  which  are  very  hard  to  dig,  on  which 
thorough-draining  could  not  now  be  done  for  $60. 

The  cost  and  the  promise  of  the  operation  in  each  in- 
stance, must  guide  the  land  owner  in  deciding  whether  or 
not  to  undertake  the  improvement. 

In  doubtful  cases,  there  is  one  compromise  which  may 
be  safely  made, — that  is,  to  omit  each  alternate  drain,  and 
defer  its  construction  until  labor  is  cheaper. 

This  is  doing  half  the  work, — a  very  different  thing 
from  half-doing  the  work.  In  such  cases,  the  lines  should 
be  laid  out  as  though  they  were  to  be  all  done  at  once,  and, 
finally,  when  the  omitted  drains  are  made,  it  should  be  in 
pursuance  of  the  original  plan.  Probably  the  drains  which 
are  laid  will  produce  more  than  one-half  of  the  benefit 
that  would  result  if  they  were  all  laid,  but  they  will  rarely 
be  satisfactory,  except  as  a  temporary  expedient,  and  the 
saving  will  be  less  than  would  at  first  seem  likely,  for  when 
the  second  drams  are  laid ;  the  cultivation  of  the  land 
must  be  again  interrupted;  the  draining  force  must  be 
again  brought  together;  the  levels  of  the  new  lines  must 
be  taken,  and  connected  with  those  of  the  old  ones ;  and 
great  care  must  be  taken,  selecting  the  dryest  weather  foi 


160  DBAJNCfG  FOR  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

the  work, — to  admit  very  little,  if  any,  muddy  water  into 
the  old  mains. 

This  practice  of  draining  by  installments  is  not  recom 
mended  ;  it  is  only  suggested  as  an  allowable  expedient, 
when  the  cost  of  the  complete  work  could  not  be  borne 
without  inconvenience. 

If  any  staid  and  economical  farmer  is  disposed  to  be 
alarmed  at  the  cost  of  draining,  he  is  respectfully  re- 
minded of  the  miles  of  expensive  stone  walls  and  other 
fences,  in  New  England  and  many  other  parts  of  the 
country,  which  often  are  a  real  detriment  to  the  farms,  oc- 
cupying, with  their  accompanying  bramble  bushes  and 
head  lands,  acres  of  valuable  land,  and  causing  great 
waste  of  time  in  turning  at  the  ends  of  short  furrows  in 
plowing  ; — while  they  produce  no  benefit  at  all  adequate 
to  their  cost  and  annoyance. 

It  should  also  be  considered  that,  just  as  the  cost  of 
fences  is  scarcely  felt  by  the  farmer,  being  made  when  hia 
teams  and  hands  could  not  be  profitably  employed  in  or- 
dinary farming  operations,  so  the  cost  of  draining  will  be 
reduced  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  work  which 
he  can  "  do  within  himself," — without  hiring  men  ex- 
pressly for  it.  The  estimate  herein  given  is  based  on  the 
supposition  that  men  are  hired  for  the  work,  at  wagea 
equal  to  $1.50  per  day, — while  draining  would  ofter 
furnish  a  great  advantage  to  the  farmer  in  giving  employ- 
ment to  farm  hands  who  are  paid  and  subsisted  by  the  year. 


CHARTER    VH. 


"WILL    IT  PAY?" 

Starting  with  the  basis  of  $60,  as  the  cost  of  draining 
an  acre  of  ordinary  farm  land ; — what  is  the  prospect  that 
the  work  will  prove  remunerative  ? 

In  all  of  the  older  States,  farmers  are  glad  to  lend  their 
surplus  funds,  on  bond  and  mortgage  on  their  neighbors' 
farms,  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  7,  and  often  6  per  cent. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  little  attention  must  be  given 
each  year  to  the  outlets,  and,  to  the  silt-basins,  as  well, 
for  the  first  few  years,  it  will  be  just  to  charge  for  the  use 
of  the  capital  8£  per  cent. 

This  will  make  a  yearly  charge  on  the  land,  for  the  bene- 
fits resulting  from  such  a  system  of  draining  as  has  been 
described,  OF  FIVE  DOLLARS  PER  ACRE. 

Will  it  Pay? — Will  the  benefits  accruing,  year  after 
year, — in  wet  seasons  and  in  dry, — with  root  crops  and 
with  grain, — with  hay  and  with  fruit, — in  rotations  of  crops 
and  in  pasture, — be  worth  $5  an  acre  ? 

On  this  question  depends  the  value  of  tile-draining  as  a 
practical  improvement,  for  if  there  is  a  self-evident  prop- 
osition in  agriculture,  it  is  that  what  is  not  profitable, 
one  year  with  another,  is  not  practical 

To  counterbalance  the  charge  of  $5,  as  the  yearly  cost 
161 


162  DBAINING  FOB   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

of  the  draining,  each  acre  must  produce,  in  addition  ta 
what  it  would  have  yielded  without  the  improvement : 

10   bushels  of  Corn        at    .50  pei  bushel 

3         "      "  Wheat     "$1.66    "        " 

5         "      «  Rye          "   1.00  "        " 

12£       "      "  Oats         tt     .40  "        " 

10         "      "  Potatoes  "     .50  "        «• 

6|       "      "  Barley     "     .75  "        « 

1,000    pounds  "  Hay         "  10.00  «  ton. 

50         "      "  'Cotton     "     .10  "  pound 

20         u      "  Tobacco  "     .25  "        " 

Surely  this  is  not  a  large  increase, — not  in  a  single  case, 
—and  the  prices  are  generally  less  than  may  be  expected 
for  years  to  come. 

The  United  States  Census  Report  places  the  average 
crop  of  Indian  Corn,  in  Indiana  and  Illinois,  at  33  bushels 
per  acre.  In  New  York  it  was  but  27  bushels,  and  in  Penn- 
sylvania but  20  bushels.  It  would  certainly  be  accounted 
extremely  liberal  to  fix  the  average  yield  of  such  soils  as 
need  draining,  at  30  bushels  per  acre.  It  is  extremely  un- 
likely that  they  would  yield  this,  in  the  average  of  seasons, 
with  the  constantly  recurring  injury  from  backward 
springs,  summer  droughts,  and  early  autumn  frosts. 

Heavy,  retentive  soils,  which  are  cold  and  late  in  the 
spring,subject  to  hard  baking  in  midsummer,  and  to  become 
cold  and  wet  in  the  early  fall,  are  the  very  ones  which  are 
best  suited,  when  drained,  to  the  growth  of  Indian  Corn. 
Tbey  are  "  strong  "  and  fertile, — and  should  be  able  to 
absorb,  and  to  prepare  for  the  use  of  plants,  the  manure 
which  is  applied  to  them,  and  the  fertilizing  matters  which 
are  brought  to  them  by  each  storm ; — but  they  cannot  prop- 
erly exercise  the  functions  of  fertile  soils,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  strangled  with  water,  chilled  by  evaporation, 
or  baked  to  almost  brick-bike  hardness,  during  nearly  the 
whole  period  of  the  growth  and  ripening  of  the  crop. 


WILL  IT  PAT?  163 

The  manure  which  has  been  added  to  them,  as  well  as  their 
own  chemical  constituents,  are  prevented  from  undergoing 
those  changes  which  are  necessary  to  prepare  them  for  the 
uses  of  vegetation.  The  water  of  rains,  finding  the  spaces 
in  the  soil  already  occupied  by  the  water  of  previous  rains, 
cannot  enter  to  deposit  the  gases  which  it  contains, — or, 
if  the  soil  has  been  dried  by  evaporation  under  the  influ- 
ence of  sim  and  wind,  the  surface  is  almost  hermetically 
sealed,  and  the  water  is  only  slowly  soaked  up,  much  of 
it  running  off  over  the  surface,  or  lying  to  be  removed 
by  the  slow  and  chilling  process  of  evaporation.  In  wet 
times  and  in  dry,  the  air,  with  its  heat,  its  oxygen,  and  ita 
carbonic  acid,  (its  universal  solvent,)  is  forbidden  to  enter 
and  do  its  beneficent  work.  The  benefit  resulting  from 
cultivating  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  counteracted  by 
the  first  unfavorable  change  of  the  weather ;  a  single  heavy 
rain,  by  saturating  the  soil,  returning  it  to  nearly  its  ori- 
ginal condition  of  clammy  compactness.  In  favorable 
seasons,  these  difficulties  are  lessened,  but  man  has  no  con- 
trol over  the  seasons,  and  to-morrow  may  be  as  foul  as 
to-day  has  been  fair.  A  crop  of  corn  on  undrained,  reten- 
tive ground,  is  subject  to  injury  from  disastrous  changes 
of  the  weather,  from  planting  until  harvest.  Even  sup- 
posing that,  in  the  most  favorable  seasons,  it  would  yield 
as  largely  as  though  the  ground  were  drained,  it  would 
lose  enough  in  unfavorable  seasons  to  reduce  the  average 
more  than  ten  (10)  bushels  per  acre 

The  average  crop,  on  such  land,  has  been  assumed  to  be 
30  bushels  per  acre ;  it  would  be  an  estimate  as  moderate 
as  this  one  is  generous,  to  say  that,  with  the  same  cultiva- 
tion and  the  same  manure,  the  average  crop,  after  drain- 
ing, would  be  50  bushels,  or  an  increase  equal  to  twice  as 
much  as  is  needed  to  pay  the  draining  charge.  If  the 
method  of  cultivation  is  improved,  by  deep  plowing,  am- 
ple manuring,  and  thorough  working, — all  of  which  may 
be  more  profitably  applied  to  drained  than  to  undrained 


164  DRAINING  FOB  PKOFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

laud, — the  average  crop, — of  a  series  of  years, — will  not 
be  less  than  60  bushels. 

The  cost  of  extra  harvesting  will  be  more  than  rejaid 
by  the  value  of  the  extra  fodder,  and  the  increased  culti- 
vation and  manuring  are  lasting  benefits,  which  can  be 
charged,  only  in  small  part,  to  the  current  crop.  There- 
fore, if  it  will  pay  to  plow,  plant,  hoe  and  harvest  for  30 
bushels  of  corn,  it  will  surely  pay  much  better  to  double 
the  crop  at  a  yearly  extra  cost  of  $5,  and,  practically,  it 
amounts  to  this ; — the  extra  crop  is  nearly  all  clear  gain. 

The  quantity  of  Wheat  required  to  repay  the  annual 
charge  for  drainage  is  so  small,  that  no  argument  is  needed 
to  show  that  any  process  which  will  simply  prevent 
"  throwing  out  "  in  winter,  and  the  failure  of  the  plant  in 
the  wetter  parts  of  the  field,  will  increase  the  product 
more  than  that  amount, — to  say  nothing  of  the  general 
importance  to  this  crop  of  having  the  land  in  the  most 
perfect  condition,  (in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer.) 

It  is  stated  thai,  since  the  general  introduction  of  drain- 
age in  England,  (within  the  past  25  years,)  the  wheat 
crop  of  that  country  has  been  more  than  doubled.  Of 
course,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  amount  per 
acre  has  been  doubled,  large  areas  which  were  originally 
unfit  for  the  growth  of  this  crop,  having  been,  by  draining, 
excellently  fitted  for  its  cultivation  ; — but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  its  yield  has  been  greatly  increased  on  all 
drained  lands,  nor  that  large  areas,  which,  before  being 
drained,  were  able  to  produce  fair  crops  only  in  the  best 
eeasons,  are  now  made  very  nearly  independent  of  the 
weather. 

It  is  not  susceptible  of  demonstration,  but  it  is  undoubt- 
edly true,  that  those  clay  or  other  heavy  soils,  which  are 
devoted  to  the  growth  of  wheat  in  this  country,  would, 
if  they  were  thoroughly  under-drained,  produce  on  the 
average  of  years,  at  least  double  their  present  crop. 

Mr.  John  Johnston,  a  venerable  Scotch  farmer,  who  has 


WILL  IT  PAY?  165 

long  Leon  a  successful  cultivator  in  the  Wheat  region  of 
Western  New  York, — and  who  was  almost  the  pioneer  of 
tile-draining  in  America, — has  laid  over  50  miles  of  drains 
within  the  last  30  years.  His  practice  is  described  m 
Khppart's  Land  Drainage,  from  which  work  we  quote  the 
following : 

"  Mr.  Johnston  says  he  never  saw  100  acres  in  any  one 
"  farm,  but  a  portion  of  it  would  pay  for  draining.  Mr. 
"  Johnston  is  no  rich  man  who  has  carried  a  favorite  hobby 
"  without  regard  to  cost  or  profit.  He  is  a  hardworking 
"  Scotch  farmer,  who  commenced  a  poor  man,  borrowed 
"  money  to  drain  his  land,  has  gradually  extended  his 
"  operations,  and  is  now  reaping  the  benefits,  in  having 
"  crops  of  40  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  He  is  a  gray- 
"  haired  Nestor,  who,  after  accumulating  the  experience 
"  of  a  long  life,  is  now,  at  68  years  of  age,  written  to  by 
"  strangers  in  every  State  of  the  Union  for  information, 
"  not  only  in  drainage  matters,  but  all  cognate  branches 
"  of  farming.  He  sits  in  his  homestead,  a  veritable  Hum- 
"  boldt  in  his  way,  dispensing  information  cheerfully 
"  through  our  agricultural  papers  and  to  private  corres- 
"  pendents,  of  whom  he  has  recorded  164  who  applied  to 
"  him  last  year.  His  opinions  are,  therefore,  worth  more 
"  than  those  of  a  host  of  theoretical  men,  wno  write  with 
"  out  practice."  ************ 

"Although  his  farm  is  mainly  devoted  to  wheat,  yet  a 
"  considerable  area  of  meadow  and  some  pasture  has  been 
"retained.  He  now  owns  about  300  acres  of  land.  The 
"  yield  of  wheat  has  been  40  bushels  this  year,  and  in  for- 
"  mer  seasons,  when  his  neighbors  were  reaping  8,  10,  or 
«•  15  bushels,  he  has  had  30  and  40."  ***** 

"  Mr.  Johnston  says  tile-draining  pays  for  itself  in  two 
"  seasons,  sometimes  in  one.  Thus,  in  1847,  he  bought  a 
"  piece  of  10  acres  to  get  an  outlet  for  his  drains.  It  was 
"a perfect  quagmire,  covered  with  coarse  aquatic  grasses, 
"  aad  so  unfruitful  that  it  would  not  give  back  the 


166  DRAINING   FOE   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

u  sown  upon  it.  In  1 848  a  crop  of  corn  was  taken  from  it, 
"  which  was  measured  and  found  to  be  eighty  bushels  pei 
"  acre,  and  as,  because  of  the  Irish  famine,  corn  was  wort  j 
"  $1  per  bushel  tha*  year,  this  crop  paid  not  only  all  the  ex- 
"  pense  of  drainage,  but  the  first  cost  of  the  land  as  well. 

"  Another  piece  of  20  acres,  adjoining  the  farm  of  the 
"  late  John  Delafield,  was  wet,  and  would  never  bring 
"  more  than  10  bushels  of  corn  per  acre.  This  was  drained 
"  at  a  great  cost,  nearly  $30  per  acre.  The  first  crop  after 
"  this  was  83  bushels  and  some  odd  pounds  per  acre.  It 
"  was  weighed  and  measured  by  Mr.  Delafield,  and  the 
"  County  Society  awarded  a  premium  to  Mr.  Johnston. 
"  Eight  acres  and  some  rods  of  this  land,  at  one  side,  aver- 
44  aged  94  bushels,  or  the  trifling  increase  of  84  bushels 
"  per  acre  over  what  it  would  bear  before  those  insignifi- 
"  cant  clay  tiles  were  buried  in  the  ground.  But  this  in- 
"  crease  of  crop  is  not  the  only  profit  of  drainage ;  for  Mr. 
"  Johnston  says  that,  on  drained  land,  one  half  the  usua. 
"  quantity  of  manure  suffices  to  give  maximum  crops.  It 
"  is  not  difficult  to  find  a  reason  for  this.  When  the  soi. 
"  is  sodden  with  water,  air  can  not  enter  to  any  extent, 
"  and  hence  oxygen  can  not  eat  off  the  surfaces  of  soil- 
44  ^articles  and  prepare  food  for  plants;  thus  the  plant 
"  must  in  great  measure  depend  on  the  manure  for  suste- 
"  nance,  and,  of  course,  the  more  this  is  the  case,  the  more 
"  manure  must  be  applied  to  get  good  crops.  This  is  one 
**  reason,  but  there  are  others  which  we  might  adduce  if 
44  one  good  one  were  not  sufficient. 

"  Mr.  Johnston  says  he  never  made  money  until  he 
44  drained,  and  so  convinced  is  he  of  the  benefits  accruing 
"  from  the  practice,  that  he  would  not  hesitate, — as  he  did 
"  not  when  the  result  was  much  more  uncertain  than  at 
14  present, — to  borrow  money  to  drain.  Drains  well  laid, 
"  endure,  but  unless  a  farmer  intends  doing  the  job  well, 
"  he  had  best  leave  it  alone  and  grow  poor,  and  move  out 
and  all  that  sort  of  thing.  Occupiers  of  appar 


WILL  IT  PAT?  167 

"  ently  dry  land  are  not  safe  in  concluding  that  they  need 
"  not  go  to  the  expense  of  draining,  for  if  they  will  but 
"  dig  a  three-foot  ditch  in  even  the  driest  soil,  water  will 
"  be  found  in  the  bottom  at  the  end  of  eight  hours,  and 
"  if  it  does  come,  then  draining  will  pay  for  itself 
"  speedily." 

Some  years  ago,  the  Rural  New  Yorker  published  a 
letter  from  one  of  its  correspondents  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  extracted  •-  — 

"  I  recollect  calling  upon  a  gentleman  in  the  harvest  field,  when  some- 
thing like  the  following  conversation  occurred : 

4  Your  wheat,  sir,  looks  very  fine ;  how  many  acres  have  you  in  this 
field  ? ' 

'  lu  the  neighborhood  of  eight,  I  judge.- 

4  Did  you  sow  upon  fallow  T ' 

4  No  sir.  We  turned  over  green  sward — sowed  immediately  upon  the 
sod,  and  drugged  it  thoroughly— and  you  see  the  yield  will  probably  be 
35  bushels  to  the  acre,  where  it  is  not  too  wet.' 

4  Yes  sir,  it  is  mostly  very  tine.  I  observed  a  thin  strip  through  it, 
but  did  not  notice  that  it  was  wet.' 

4  Well,  it  is  not  very  wet.  Sometimes  after  a  rain,  the  water  runs 
across  it,  and  in  spring  and  fall  it  is  just  wet  enough  to  heave  the  wheat 
and  kill  it.' 

I  inquired  whether  a  couple  of  good  drains  across  the  lot  would  not 
render  it  dry. 

4  Perhaps  so — but  there  is  not  over  an  acre  that  is  killed  out' 

4  Have  you  made  an  estimate  cf  the  loss  you  annually  sustain  fiom 
this  wet  place  ? ' 

4  No,  I  had  not  thought  much  about  it.' 

4  Would  $30  be  too  high  ? ' 

4  0  yes,  double.' 

4  Well,  let's  see ;  it  cost  you  $3  to  turn  over  the  sward?  Two  bush- 
els of  seed,  $2 ;  harrowing  in,  75  cents ;  interest,  taxes,  and  fences, 
$5  25 ;  25  bushels  of  wheat  lost,  $25.' 

'  Deduct  for  harvesting ' 

4  No ;  the  straw  would  pay  for  that' 

4  Very  well,  all  footed  $36.' 

4  What  will  the  wheat  and  straw  on  this  acre  be  worth  this  year  f ' 

4  Nothing,  as  I  shall  not  cut  the  ground  over.' 

4  Then  it  appears  that  you  have  lost,  in  what  you  have  actually  ex- 
pen  led,  and  the  wheat  you  would  have  harvested,  had  the  ground  bee* 
dry  $36,  a  pretty  large  sum  for  one  acre.' 

'  Yes  I  s<«,'  said  the  farmer." 


168  DBJLLN'ING   FOB   PBOFTT   AND    HEALTH. 

While  Rye  n.ay  be  grown,  with  tolerable  advantage,  on 
lands  which  are  less  perfectly  drained  than  is  necessary 
for  Wheat,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  increase  of  more 
than  the  six  and  two-thirds  bushels  needed  to  make  up  the 
drainage  charge  will  be  the  result  of  the  improvement. 

While  Oats  will  thrive  in  soils  which  are  too  wet  for 
many  other  crops,  the  ability  to  plant  early,  which  is  se- 
cured by  an  early  removal  from  the  soil  of  its  surplus  wa- 
ter, will  ensure,  one  year  with  another,  more  than  twelve 
and  a  half  bushels  of  increased  product. 

In  the  case  of  Potatoes,  also,  the  early  planting  will  be 
a  great  advantage ;  and,  while  the  cause  of  the  potato-rot 
is  not  yet  clearly  discovered,  it  is  generally  conceded 
that,  even  if  it  does  not  result  directly  from  too  great 
wetness  of  the  soil,  its  development  is  favored  by  this 
condition,  either  from  a  direct  action  on  the  tubers,  or 
from  the  effect  in  the  air  immediately  about  the  plants, 
of  the  exhalations  of  a  humid  soil. 

An  increase  of  from  five  to  ten  per  cent,  on  a  very  or- 
dinary crop  of  potatoes,  will  cover  the  drainage  charge, 
and,  with  facilities  for  marketing,  the  higher  price  of  the 
earlier  yield  is  of  much  greater  consequence. 

Barley  will  not  thrive  in  wet  soil,  and  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  drainage  would  give  it  much  more  than  the  in- 
creased yield  prescribed  above. 

As  to  hay,  there  are  many  wet,  rich  soils  which  produce 
very  large  crops  of  grass,  and  it  is  possible  that  drainage 
might  not  always  cnuse  them  to  yield  a  thousand  pounds 
more  of  hay  to  the  acre,  but  the  quality  of  the  hay  from 
the  drained  soil,  would,  of  itself,  more  than  compensate 
for  the  drainage  charge.  The  great  benefit  of  the  im- 
provement, with  reference  to  this  crop,  however,  lies  in 
the  fact  that,  although  wet,  grass  lands, — and  by  "  wet"  is 
meant  the  condition  of  undrained,  retentive  clays,  and 
heavy  loams,  or  other  soils  requiring  drainage, — in  a  very 
few  years  "  run  out,"  ot  become  occupied  by  semi-aquatic 


WILL  IT  PAY?  109 

and  other  objectionable  plants,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
proper  grasses;  the  same  lands,  thoroughly  drained,  may 
be  kept  in  full  yield  of  the  finest  hay  plants,  as  long  as  the 
ground  is  properly  managed.  It  must,  of  course,  be  ma- 
nured, from  time  to  time,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  puddling  of  its  surface,  by  men  or  animals, 
while  it  is  too  wet  from  recent  rain.  With  proper  atten- 
tion to  these  points,  it  need  not  be  broken  up  in  a  lifetime, 
and  it  may  be  relied  on  to  produce  uniformly  good  crops, 
always  equal  to  the  best  obtained  before  drainage. 

So  far  as  Cotton  and  Tobacco  are  concerned,  there  are 
not  many  instances  recorded  of  the  systematic  drainage 
of  lands  appropriated  to  their  cultivation,  but  there  is 
every  reason  to  suppose  that  they  will  both  be  benefitted 
by  any  operation  which  will  have  the  effect  of  placing  the 
soil  in  a  better  condition  for  the  uses  of  all  cultivated 
plants.  The  average  crop  of  tobacco  is  about  700  Ibs., 
and  that  of  cotton  probably  250  Ibs.  An  addition  of  one- 
fifth  to  the  cotton  crop,  and  of  only  one  thirty-fifth  to  the 
tobacco  crop,  would  make  the  required  increase. 

The  failure  of  the  cotton  crop,  during  the  past  season, 
(1866,)  might  have  been  entirely  prevented,  in  many  dis- 
tricts, liy  the  thorough  draining  of  the  land. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  drainage  with  reference  to 
the  above-named  staple  crops,  will  apply  with  equal,  if  not 
greater  force,  to  all  garden  and  orchard  culture.  In  fact, 
with  the  exception  of  osier  willows,  and  cranberries,  there 
is  scarcely  a  cultivated  plant  which  will  not  yield  larger 
and  better  crops  on  drained  than  on  undrained  land, — 
enough  better,  and  enough  larger,  to  pay  much  more  than 
the  interest  on  the  cost  of  the  improvement. 

Yet,  this  advantage  of  draining,  is,  by  no  means,  the 
only  one  which  is  worthy  of  consideration.  Since  the 
object  of  cultivation  is  to  produce  remunerative  crops,  of 
course,  the  larger  and  better  the  crops,  the  more  completely 
is  the  object  attained ; — and  to  this  extent  the  greatest 
8 


170  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

benefit  resulting  from  draining,  lies  in  the  increased  yield, 
But  there  is  another  advantage, — a  material  and  mora 
advantage, — which  is  equally  to  be  considered. 

Instances  of  the  profit  resulting  from  under-draining, 
(coupled,  as  it  almost  always  is,  with  improved  cultiva- 
tion,) are  frequently  published,  and  it  would  be  easy  to 
fortify  this  chapter  with  hundreds  of  well  authenticated 
cases.  It  is,  however,  deemed  sufficient  to  quote  the  fol- 
lowing, from  an  old  number  of  one  of  the  New  York 
dailies :  — 

"  Some  years  ago,  the  son  of  an  English  farmer  came  to  the  United 
States,  aud  let  himself  as  a  farm  laborer,  in  New  York  State,  on  the  fol- 
lowing conditions:  Commencing  work  at  the  first  of  September,  he  wa» 
to  work  ten  hours  a  day  for  three  years,  and  to  receive  in  payment  a 
deed  of  a  field  containing  twelve  acres — securing  himself  by  an  agree- 
ment, by  which  his  employer  was  put  under  bonds  of  $2,000  to  fulfill  his 
part  of  the  contract ;  also,  during  these  three  years,  he  was  to  have  the 
control  of  the  field;  to  work  it  at  his  own  expense,  and  to  give  his  em- 
ployer one-half  the  proceeds.  The  field  lay  under  the  south  side  of  a 
hill,  was  of  dark,  heavy  clay  resting  on  a  bluish-colored,  solid  clay  sub- 
soil, and  for  many  years  previous,  had  not  been  knowc  to  yield  anything 
but  a  yellowish,  hard,  stunted  vegetation. 

"  The  farmer  thought  the  young  man  was  a  simpleton,  and  that  he, 
himself,  was  most  wise  and  fortunate;  but  the  former,  nothing  daunted 
by  this  opinion,  which  he  was  not  unconscious  that  the  latter  entertain 
ed  of  him,  immediately  hired  a  set  of  laborers,  and  set  them  to  work  it 
the  field  trenching,  as  earnestly  us  it  was  well  possible  for  men  to  labor. 
In  the  morning  and  evening,  before  and  after  having  worked  his  ten 
hours,  as  per  agreement,  he  worked  with  them,  and  continued  to  work 
in  this  way  until,  about  the  middle  of  the  following  November,  he  had 
finished  the  laying  of  nearly  5,000  yards  of  good  tile  under-drains.  He 
then  had  the  field  plowed  deep  and  thoroughly,  and  the  earth  thrown  up 
as  much  as  possible  into  ridges,  and  thus  let  it  remain  during  the  win- 
ter. Next  spring  he  had  the  field  again  plowed  as  before,  then  cross- 
plowed  and  thoroughly  pulverized  with  a  heavy  harrow,  then  sowed  it 
with  oats  and  clover.  The  yield  was  excellent— nothing  to  be  compared 
to  it  had  ever  before  been  seen  upon  that  field.  Next  year  it  gave  two 
crops  of  clover,  of  a  rich  dark  green,  and  enormously  heavy  and  luxuri- 
ant; and  the  year  following,  after  beinir  manured  at  an  expense  of  some 
$7  an  acre,  nine  acres  of  the  field  yielded  936  bushels  of  corn,  and  35 
wagon  loais  of  pumpkins ;  while  from  the  remaining  three  acres  wer« 
taken  100  bushels  of  potatoes— the  return  of  this  crop  being  upwards 
Of  $1,200.  The  time  had  now  come  for  the  field  to  fall  into  the  yr  an* 


WILL  IT  PAT?  171 

'b  T><V»  ession,  and  the  farmer  unhesitatingly  offered  him  $1,50G  to 
h  Jw  title  to  it ;  and  when  this  was  unhesitatingly  refused,  jt 
t, COO,  which  was  accepted. 

lb«s  young  man's  account  stood  thus 

Half  proceMsof  oats  and  straw,  first  year $J66    0 

Half  value  of  sheep  pasturage,  first  year. 25  JO 

Halt  cf  fir 01  crops  of  clover,  first  year 112  50 

UP  If  of  se^nd  crops  of  clover,  including  seed,  second  year. . .  135  00 

Half  of  sheep  pasturage,  second  year 15  00 

Half  of  croi  s  of  corn,  pumpkins  and  potatoes,  third  year 690  00 

Received  fr<  <n  farmer,  for  rtlinquishment  of  title 2,000  00 


ACC/M  at  Dr.  $3,142  50 

To  nnrter-d  lining,  labor  and  tiles $325  00 

To  labor  a»  1  manure,  three  seasons 475  00 

To  labo  •  gl  en  to  farmer,  $16  per  month,  86  months ....  576  00—1,376  OP 


Balar;ein  his  favor $1,766  50 

Draining  makes  the  farmer,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
master  of  his  vocation.  With  a  sloppy,  drenched,  cold, 
uncongenial  soil,  which  is  saturated  with  every  rain,  and 
takes  d»  ye,  and  even  weeks,  to  become  sufficiently  dry  to 
work  iijor,  his  efforts  are  constantly  baffled  by  unfavora- 
ble weatuor,  at  those  times  when  it  is  most  important  that 
his  work  proceed  without  interruption.  Weeks  are  lost, 
at  a  seast  n  when  they  are  all  too  short  for  the  work  to  be 
done.  Tie  ground  must  be  hurriedly,  and  imperfectly 
prepared,  a,nd  the  seed  is  put  in  too  late,  often  to  rot  in  the 
over-soaked  soil,  requiring  the  field  to  be  planted  again  at 
a  time  vvlich  makes  it  extremely  doubtful  whether  the 
crop  will  ripen  before  the  frost  destroys  it. 

The  ntcessary  summer  cultivation,  between  the  rows, 
has  to  be  done  as  the  weather  permits ;  and  much  moro 
of  it  is  required  because  of  the  baking  of  the  ground. 
The  wLole  life  of  the  farmer,  in  fact,  becomes  a  constant 
struggle  -with  nature,  and  he  fights  always  at  a  disadvan 
tage.  What  he  does  by  the  work  of  days,  is  mainly  un- 
done by  a  single  night's  storm.  Weeds  grow  apace,  and 
the  land  is  too  wet  to  admit  of  their  being  exterminated. 
By  the  time  that  it  is  dry  enough,  "ther  pressing  work 


172  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

occupies  the  time ;  and  if,  finally,  a  day  comes  when  thej 
may  be  attacked,  they  offer  ten  times  the  resistance  that 
they  would  have  done  a  week  earlier.  The  operations  of 
the  farm  are  carried  on  more  expensively  than  if  the 
ability  to  work  constantly  allowed  a  smaller  force  to  be 
employed.  The  crops  which  give  such  doubtful  promise, 
require  the  same  cultivation  as  though  they  were  certain 
to  be  remunerative,  and  the  work  can  be  done  only  with 
increased  labor,  because  of  the  bad  condition  of  the  soil. 

From  force  of  tradition  and  of  habit,  the  farmer  accepts 
his  fate  and  plods  through  his  hard  life,  piously  ascribing 
to  the  especial  interference  of  an  inscrutable  Providence, 
the  trials  which  come  of  his  own  neglect  to  use  the  means 
of  relief  which  Providence  has  placed  within  his  reach 

Trouble  enough  he  must  have,  at  any  rate,  but  not  nec- 
essarily all  that  he  now  has.  It  is  not  within  the  scope 
of  the  best  laid  drains  to  control  storm  or  sunshine, — but 
it  is  within  their  power  to  remove  the  water  of  the  storm, 
rapidly  and  sufficiently,  and  to  allow  the  heat  of  the  sun- 
shine to  penetrate  the  soil  and  do  its  hidden  work.  No 
human  improvement  can  change  any  of  the  so-called 
"phenomena"  of  nature,  or  prevent  the  action  of  the 
least  of  her  laws;  but  their  effects  upon  the  soil  and  its 
crops  may  be  greatly  modified,  and  that  which,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  would  have  caused  inconvenience  or 
loss,  may,  by  a  change  of  circumstances,  be  made  posi- 
tively beneficial. 

In  the  practice  of  agriculture,  which  is  pre-eminently 
an  economic  art,  draining  will  be  prosecuted  because  of 
the  pecuniary  profit  which  it  promises,  and, — very  proper- 
ly,— it  will  not  be  pursued,  to  any  considerable  extent, 
where  the  money,  which  it  costs,  will  not  bring  money  in 
return.  Yet,  in  a  larger  view  of  the  case,  its  collateral 
advantages  are  of  even  greater  moment  than  its  mere 
profits.  It  is  the  foundation  and  the  commencement  of 
the  most  intelligent  farming.  It  opens  the  way  for  other 


WILL  IT  PAT?  173 

Improvements,  which,  without  it,  would  produce  only 
Doubtful  or  temporary  benefits ;  and  it  enables  the  fanner 
so  to  extend  and  enlarge  his  operations,  with  fair  promise 
of  success,  as  to  raise  his  occupation  from  a  mere  waiting 
upon  the  uncertain  favors  of  nature,  to  an  intelligent 
handling  of  her  forces,  for  the  attainment  of  almost  certain 
results. 

The  rude  work  of  an  unthinking  farmer,  who  scratches 
tha  surface  soil  with  his  plow,  plants  his  seed,  and  trusts 
to  the  chances  of  a  greater  or  less  return,  is  unmitigated 
drudgery, — unworthy  of  an  intelligent  man ;  but  he 
who  investigates  all  of  the  causes  of  success  and  failure  in 
farming,  and  adapts  every  operation  to  the  requirements 
of  the  circumstances  under  which  he  works ;  doing  every- 
thing in  his  power  that  may  tend  to  the  production  of  the 
results  which  he  desires,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  avoiding 
everything  that  may  interfere  with  his  success, — leaving 
nothing  to  chance  that  can  be  secured,  and  securing  all 
that  chance  may  offer, — is  engaged  in  the  most  ennobling, 
the  most  intelligent  and  the  most  progressive  of  all  indus- 
trial avocations. 

In  the  cultivation  of  retentive  soils,  drainage  is  the  key 
to  all  improvement,  and  its  advantage  is  to  be  measured 
not  simply  by  the  effect  which  it  directly  produces  in  in- 
creasing production,  but,  in  still  greater  degree,  by  the 
extent  to  which  it  prepares  the  way  for  the  successful  ap- 
plication of  improved  processes,  makes  the  farmer  inde- 
pendent of  weather  and  season,  and  offers  freer  scope  to 
intelligence  in  the  direction  of  Us  affairs. 


CHAPTER    VTTI. 


HOW    TO    MAKE    DRAINING    TILES. 

Draining  tiles  are  made  of  burnt  clay,  like  bricks  and 
earthen-ware. 

In  general  terms,  the  process  is  as  follows : — The  clay  ia 
mixed  with  sand,  or  other  substances  which  give  it  the  prop- 
er consistency,  and  is  so  wetted  as  to  form  a  plastic  mass,  to 
which  may  be  given  any  desired  form,  and  which  is  suffici- 
ently stiff  to  retain  its  shape.  Properly  prepared  clay  is 
forced  through  the  aperture  of  a  die  of  the  shape  of  the  out- 
side of  the  tile,  while  a  plug, — held  b}  a  support  in  the  rear 
of  the  die, — projects  through  the  aperture,  and  gives  the 
form  to  the  bore  of  the  tile.  The  shape  of  the  material 
of  the  tile,  as  it  conies  from  the  die,  corresponds  to  the 
open  space,  between  the  plug  and  the  edge  of  the  aper- 
ture. The  clay  is  forced  out  in  a  continuous  pipe,  which 
is  cut  to  the  desired  length  by  a  wire,  which  is  so  thin  as 
to  pass  through  the  mass  without  altering  the  shape  of  the 
pipe.  The  short  lengths  of  pipe  are  dried  in  the  air  as 
thoroughly  as  they  can  be,  and  are  then  burned  in  a  kiln, 
similar  to  that  used  for  pottery. 

Materials, — The  range  of  earths  which  may  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  tiles  is  considerable,  though  clay  ia 
the  basis  of  all  of  them.  The  best  is,  probably,  the  clay 
174 


HOW  TO   MAKE   DRAINING  TILES.  175 

wrhich  is  Almost  invariably  found  at  the  bottom  of  muck 
beds,  as  this  is  finer  and  more  compact  than  that  which  is 
dug  from  dry  land,  and  requires  but  little  preparation. 
There  is,  also,  a  peculiar  clay,  found  in  some  localities, 
which  is  almost  like  quick-sand  in  its  nature,  and  which  is 
excellent  for  tile-making, — requiring  no  freezing,  or  wash' 
ing  to  prepare  it  for  the  machine.  As  a  general  rule,  anj 
clay  which  will  make  good  bricks  will  make  tiles.  When 
first  taken  from  the  ground,  these  clays  are  not  usually  ad- 
hesive, but  become  so  on  being  moistened  and  kneaded. 

It  is  especially  important  that  no  limestone  pebbles  be 
mixed  with  the  clay,  as  the  burning  would  change  these 
to  quicklime,  which,  in  slaking,  would  destroy  the  tiles. 
The  presence  of  a  limey  earth,  however,  mixed  through 
the  mass,  is  a  positive  advantage,  as  in  this  inti- 
mate admixture,  the  lime  forms,  under  the  heat  of  the 
kiln,  a  chemical  combination  with  the  other  ingredients ; 
and,  as  it  melts  more  readily  than  some  of  them,  it  hast- 
ens the  burning  and  makes  it  more  complete.  What  is 
known  as  plastic  clay,  (one  of  the  purest  of  the  native 
clays.)  is  too  strong  for  tile-making,  and  must  be  "  tem- 
pered," by  having  other  substances  mixed  with  it,  to  give 
it  a  stiffer  quality. 

The  clay  which  is  best  for  brick-making,  contains 
Silica,  arid  Alumina  in  about  the  following  proportions : 

Silica 55  to  75  per  cent. 

Alumina 35  "  25    "    " 

Variable  quantities  of  other  materials  are  usually  found 
in  connection  with  the  clay,  in  its  native  condition.  The 
most  common  of  these  are  the  following:  — 

Magnesia. ...  1  to   5  per  cent— sometimes  20  to  30  per  cent 

Lime 0  "  19    "     " 

Potash 0  "    5    "     " 

OxydoflronO  "  19    "     M 

**  These  necessary  elements  give  fusibility  to  earthen- 


176  DRAINING  FOB  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

*  ware,  and,  therefore,  allow  its  constituent  substances  to 
u  combine  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  resisting  body ; 
u  and  this  is  performed  with  a  temperature  lower  in  pro- 
"  portion  as  the  necessary  elements  are  more  abundant."* 

When  the  earth  of  the  locality  where  tiles  are  to  be 
made  is  not  sufficiently  strong  for  the  purpose,  and  plabtio 
clay  can  be  cheaply  obtained  from  a  distance,  a  small 
quantity  of  this  may  be  used  to  give  strength  and  tenacity 
to  the  native  material. 

The  compound  must  always  contain  a  proper  proportion 
of  clay  and  sand.  If  too  little  day  is  used,  the  mass  will 
not  be  sufficiently  tough  to  retain  its  compactness  as  it 
passe?  through  the  die  of  the  tile  machine ;  if  too  little 
sand,  the  moulded  tiles  will  not  be  strong  enough  to  bear 
handling,  and  they  will  crack  and  warp  in  drying  and  burn- 
ing. Within  the  proper  limits,  the  richer  earths  may  be 
moulded  much  thinner,  and  tiles  made  from  them  may, 
consequently,  be  made  lighter  for  transportation,  without 
jeing  too  weak.  The  best  materials  for  tempering  stiff 
clays  are  sand,  pounded  brick  or  tile,  or  scoria^  from 
smelting  furnaces. 

Preparation  Of  Earths. — The  clay  from  which  tiles  are 
to  be  made,  should  be  thrown  out  in  the  fall,  (the  upper 
and  lower  parts  of  the  beds  being  well  mixed  in  the  opera- 
tion,) and  made  into  heaps  on  the  surface,  not  more  than 
about  3  feet  square  and  3  feet  high.  In  this  form,  it  is  left 
exposed  to  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter,  which  will 
aid  very  much  in  modifying  its  character, — making  it  less 
lumpy  and  more  easily  workable.  Any  stones  which  may 
appear  in  the  digging,  should,  of  course,  be  removed,  and 
most  earths  will  be  improved  by  being  passed  through  a 
pair  of  heavy  iron  rollers,  before  they  are  piled  up  for  the 
winter.  The  rollers  should  be  made  of  cast  iron,  about 
15  inches  in  diameter,  and  30  inches  long,  and  set  as  closa 

«  Klippart's  Land  Drainage. 


HOW  TO   MAKE   DRAINING  TELES.  177 

together  as  they  can  be,  and  still  be  revolved  bj  the  power 
of  two  horses.  The  grinding,  by  means  of  these  rollers, 
may  add  50  cents  per  thousand  to  the  cost  of  the  tiles, 
but  it  will  greatly  improve  their  quality. 

In  the  spring,  the  clay  should  be  prepared  for  tempering, 
by  the  removal  of  such  pebbles  as  it  mny  still  contain. 
The  best  way  to  do  this  is  by  "  washing,"  though,  if  there 
be  only  a  few  coarse  pebbles,  they  may  be  removed  by 
building  the  clay  into  a  solid  cone  2  or  3  feet  high,  and 
then  paring  it  off  into  thin  slices  with  a  long  knife  having 
a  handle  at  each  end.  This  paring  will  discover  any  peb- 
bles larger  than  a  pea  that  may  have  remained  in  the  clay 
Washing  is  the  process  of  mixing  the  clay  with  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  water,  so  as  to  form  a  thin  paste,  in 
which  all  stones  and  gravel  will  sink  to  the  bottom;  the 
liquid  portion  is  then  drawn  off  into  shallow  pits  or  vats, 
and  allowed  to  settle,  the  clear  water  being  finally  re- 
moved by  pumping  or  by  evaporation,  according  to  the 
need  for  haste.  For  washing  small  quantities  of  clay,  a 
common  mortar  bed,  such  as  is  used  by  masons,  will  an- 
swer, if  it  be  supplied  with  a  gate  for  draining  off  the 
muddy  water  after  the  gravel  has  settled ;  but,  if  the  work 
is  at  all  extensive,  a  washing  mill  will  be  required.  It 
may  be  made  in  the  form  of  a  circular  trough,  with  scra- 
pers for  mixing  the  clay  and  water  attached  to  a  circular 
horse-sweep. 

"Another  convenient  mixing  machine  may  be  constructed 
"  in  the  following  manner :  Take  a  large  hollow  log,  of  suit- 
u  able  length,  say  five  or  six  feet ;  hew  out  the  inequalities 
"  \vith  an  adz,  and  close  up  the  ends  with  pieces  of  strong 
;'  plank,  into  which  bearing  have  been  cut  to  support  a  re- 
"  volving  .shaft.  This  shaft  should  be  sufficiently  thick  to 
"  permit  being  transfixed  with  wooden  pins  long  enough  to 
"  reach  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  sides  of  the  log  or 
"trough,  and  they  should  be  so  beveled  as  to  form  in  their 
M  aggregate  shape  an  interrupted  screw  having  a  direction 
8* 


178  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

"  toward  that  end  of  the  box  where  the  mixed  clay  is  de 
"  signed  to  pass  out.  In  order  to  effect  the  mixing  more 
"  thoroughly,  these  pins  may  be  placed  sufficiently  far  apart 
"  to  permit  the  interior  of  the  box  to  be  armed  with  other 
"  pins  extending  toward  the  center,  between  which  they 
M  can  easily  move.  The  whole  is  placed  either  horizontally 
"  or  vertically,  and  supplied  with  clay  and  water  in  proper 
"  quantities,  while  the  shaft  is  made  to  revolve  by  means  of 
"a  sweep,  with  horse  power,  running  water  or  steam,  as 
"  the  case  may  be.  The  clay  is  put  into  the  end  farthest 
"  from  the  outlet,  and  is  carried  forward  to  it  and  mixed 
"  by  the  motion,  and  mutual  action  and  re-action  of  the  pins 
"  in  the  shaft  and  in  the  sides  of  the  box.  Iron  pins  may, 
"  of  course,  be  substituted  for  the  wooden  ones,  and  have 
"the  advantage  of  greater  durability  and  of  greater  strength 
"  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  the  number  may  therefore 
"  be  greater  in  a  machine  of  any  given  length.  The  fluid 
"mass  of  clay  and  water  may  be  permitted  to  fall  upon  a 
"  sieve  or  riddle,  of  heavy  wire,  and  afterward  be  received 
"  in  a  settling  vat,  of  suitable  size  and  construction,  to  drain 
"  off  the  water  and  let  the  clay  dry  out  sufficiently  by  sub- 
"  sequent  evaporation.  A  machine  of  this  construction 
"  may  be  made  of  such  a  size  that  it  may  be  put  in  motion 
"  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  crank,  and  yet  be  capable  of 
"mixing,  if  properly  supplied,  clay  enough  to  mold  800 
"  or  1000  pieces  of  drain  pipe  per  day."* 

Mr.  Parkes,  in  a  report  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety of  England,  in  1843,  says: 

M  It  is  requisite  that  the  clay  be  well  washed  and  sieved 
"  before  pugging,  for  the  manufacture  of  these  tiles,  or  tho 
u  operation  of  drawing  them  would  be  greatly  impeded,  by 
"  having  to  remove  stones  from  the  small  space  surround- 
*'  ing  the  die,  which  determines  the  thickness  of  the  pipe. 
"  Bat  it  results  from  this  necessary  washing,  that  the  sub 


•Klippart'fl  Land  Drainage. 


HOW  TO    MAKE    DRAINING   TILES. 


179 


"  stance  of  the  pipe  is  uniformly  and  extremely  dense, 
"  which,  consequently,  gives  it  immense  strength,  and  en- 
"  sures  a  durability  which  cannot  belong  to  a  more  por- 
"  ous,  though  thicker,  tile. 

"  The  clay  is  brought  from  the  pug-mill  so  dry  that, 
"  wlien  squeezed  through  the  machine,  not  a  drop  of  water 
"  exudes, — moisture  is,  indeed,  scarcely  apparent  on  the 
"  surface  of  the  raw  pipe.  Hence,  the  tiles  undergo  little 
"  or  no  change  of  figure  while  drying,  which  t:\kes  place 
"  very  rapidly,  because  of  their  firm  and  slight  substance." 
Tempering. — After  the  fine  clay  is  relieved  of  the  water 
with  which  it  was  washed,  and  has  become  tolerably  dry,  it 
should  be  mixed  with  the  sand,  or  other  tempering  ma- 
terial, and  passed  through  the 
Puff-Mill,  (Fig.  42,)  which  will 
thoroughly  mix  its  various  ingre- 
dients,  and  work  the  whole  into  a 
homogeneous  mass,  ready  for  the 
tile  machine.  The  pug  mill  is 
similar  to  that  used  in  brick-yards, 
only,  as  the  clay  is  worked  much 
stiffer  for  tiles  than  for  bricks, 
iron  knives  must  be  substituted 
for  the  wooden  pins.  These 
knives  are  so  arranged  as  to  cut 
the  clay  in  every  part,  and,  by 
being  set  at  an  angle,  they  force  it 
downward  toward  the  outlet  gate 
at  the  bottom.  The  clay  should 
be  kept  at  the  proper  degree  of  moisture  from  the  time  of 
tempering,  and  after  passing  through  the  pug-mill  it 
should  be  thoroughly  beaten  to  drive  out  the  air,  and  the 
beaten  mass  should  be  kept  covered  with  wet  cloths  to 
prevent  drying. 

Moulding  the  Tiles. — Machines  for  moulding  tiles  are 


IT.  42. — PVG-MILL. 


180  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT    AND    HEALTH. 

of  various  styles,  with  much  variation  in  the  details  of 
their  construction,  but  they  all  act  on  the  same  general 
principle ; — that  of  forcing  the  clay  through  a  ring-shaped 
aperture  in  an  iron  plate,  forming  a  continuous  pipe,  which 
is  carried  off  on  an  endless  apron,  or  on  rollers,  and  cut 
by  wires  into  the  desired  lengths.  The  plates  with  the 
ring-shaped  apertures  are  called  dies;  the  openings  are 
of  any  desired  form,  corresponding  to  the  external  shape 
of  the  tiles;  and  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  bore,  is  determined  by  the 
core  or  plug,  which  is  held  in  the 
centers  of  the  apertures.  The  con- 
struction of  the  die  plates,  and  the 
manner  of  fastening  the  plugs, 
which  determine  the  bore  of  the  tiles,  is  shown  in  Fig.  43. 
The  view  taken  is  of  the  inside  of  the  plate. 

The  machine  consists  usually  of  a  strong  iron  chest, 
with  a  hinged  cover,  into  which  the  clay  is  placed,  having 
a  piston  moving  in  it,  connected  by  a  rod  or  bar,  having 
cog-teeth,  with  a  cog-wheel,  which  is  moved  by  horse  or 
hand  power,  and  drives  the  piston  forward  with  steadiness, 
forcing  the  clay  through  the  openings  in  the  die-plate. 
The  clay  issues  in  continuous  lines  of  pipe.  The  machines 
most  in  use  in  this  country  are  connected  directly  with 
the  pug-mill,  and  as  the  clay  is  pugged,  it  at  once  passes 
into  the  box,  and  is  pressed  out  as  tiles.  These  machines 
are  usually  run  by  horse-power. 

Mr.  Barral,  in  his  voluminous  work  on  drainage,*  de- 
scribes, as  follows,  a  cheap  hand  machine  which  can  be 
made  by  any  country  wheelwright,  and  which  has  a  capa- 
city of  3,000  tiles  per  day  (Fig.  44)  : 

"  Imagine  a  simple,  wooden  box,  divided  into  two  com- 
s'  partments.  In  the  rear  compartment  there  stands  a 
"  vertical  post,  fastened  with  two  iron  bolts,  having  heads 

*Drainage  des  Terres  Arables,  Paris,  1856. 


HOW   TO   MAKE    DRAINING    TILES. 


181 


"  at  one  end,  and  nuts  and  screws  at  the  other.  The  box 
"  is  thus  fixed  to  its  support.  We  simply  place  this  sup- 
"  port  on  the  ground  and  bind  its  upper  part  with  a  rope 
"  to  a  tree,  a  stake,  or  a  post.  The  front  compartment  is 
"  the  reservoir  for  the  clay,  presenting  at  its  front  an 
"  orifice,  in  which  we  fix  the  desired  die  with  a  simple  bolt 


Fig.  44. — CIIEAI'  WOOEEN  MACHINE. 

"  A  wooden  piston,  of  which  the  rod  is  jointed  with  a 
"  lever,  which  works  in  a  bolt  at  the  top  of  the  supporting 
"  post,  gives  the  necessary  pressure.  When  the  chest  is 
"full  of  clay,  we  bear  down  on  the  end  of  the  lever, 
"  and  the  moulded  tiles  run  out  on  a  table  supplied  with 
"  rollers.  Raising  the  piston,  it  comes  out  of  the  box, 
"  which  is  again  packed  with  clay.  The  piston  is  replaced 
"  in  the  box  ;  pressure  is  again  applied  to  the  lever,  and 
"  so  on.  When  the  line  of  tiles  reaches  the  end  of  the 
"  table,  we  lower  a  frame  on  Avhich  brass  wires  are 
"  stretched,  and  cut  it  into  the  usual  lengths." 

The  workmen  must  attend  well  to  the  degree  of  moist 
ure  of  the  clay  which  is  put  into  the  machine.  It  should 
be  dry  enough  to  show  no  undue  moisture  on  its  surface 
as  it  comes  out  of  the  die-plate,  and  sufficiently  moist  not 


182  DRAINING  FOR   PROFIT   AN1> 

to  be  crumbled  in  passing  the  edge  of  the  mould.  The 
clay  for  small  (thin)  tiles  must,  necessarily,  be  more  moist 
than  that  which  is  to  pass  through  a  wider  aperture;  and 
for  the  latter  there  may,  with  advantage,  be  more  sand  in 
%the  paste  than  would  be  practicable  with  the  former. 

After  the  tiles  are  cut  into  lengths,  they  are  removed 
by  a  set  of  mandrils,  small  enough  to  pass  easily  into 
them,  such  as  are  shown  in  Fig.  45,  (the  number  of  fingers 
corresponding  with  the 
number  of  rows  of  tiles 
made  by  the  machine,)  and 
Fig.  45.— MANDRIL  FOK  CARRYING  are  placed  on  shelves  made 

TILES   FROM   MACHINE.  -      r 

oi  narrow  strips  sawn  from 

one-inch  boards,  laid  with  spaces  between  them  to  allow 
a  free  circulation  of  air. 

Drying  and  Rolling. — Care  must  be  taken  that  freshly 
made  tiles  be  not  dried  too  rapidly.  They  should  be 
sheltered  from  the  sun  and  from  strong  winds.  Too  rapid 
drying  has  the  effect  of  warping  them  out  of  shape,  and, 
sometimes,  of  cracking  the  clay.  To  provide  against  this 
injury,  the  drying  is  done  under  sheds  or  other  covering, 
and  the  side  which  is  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds  is 
sometimes  boarded  up. 

For  the  first  drying,  the  tiles  are  placed  in  single  layers 
on  the  shelves.  When  about  half  dried, — at  which  time 
they  are  usually  warped  more  or  less  from  their  true 
shape, — it  is  well  to  roll  them.  This  is  done  by  passing 
through  them  a  smooth,  round  stick,  (sufficiently  smaller 
than  the  bore  to  enter  it  easily,  and  long  enough  to  pro- 
ject five  or  six  inches  beyond  each  end  of  the  tile,)  and, — 
holding  one  end  of  the  stick  in  each  hand, — rolling  them 
carefully  on  a  table.  This  operation  should  be  performed 
when  the  tiles  are  still  moist  enough  not  to  be  broken  by 
the  slight  bending  required  to  make  them  straight.  After 
rolling,  the  tiles  may  be  piled  up  iu  close  layers,  some 


HOW  TO   MAKE   DRAINING   TELES.  183 

four  or  five  feet  high,  (which  will  secure  them  against 
further  warping,)  and  left  until  they  are  dry  enough  for 
burning, — that  is,  as  dry  as  they  can  be  made  by  exposure 
to  the  air. 

Burning. — Tiles  are  burned  in  kilns  in  which,  by  the 
effect  of  flame  acting  directly  upon  them,  they  are  raised 
to  a  heat  sufficient  to  melt  some  of  their  more  easily  fusi- 
ble ingredients,  and  give  to  them  a  stone-like  hardness. 

Kilns  are  of  various  construction  and  of  various  sizes. 
As  this  book  is  not  intended  for  the  instruction  of  those 
who  are  engaged  in  the  general  manufacture  of  tiles,  only 
for  those  who  may  find  it  necessary  to  establish  local 
works,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  describe  a  temporary  earthen 
kiln  which  may  be  cheaply  built,  and  which  will  answer 
an  excellent  purpose,  where  only  100,000  or  200,000  tiles 
per  season  will  be  required. 

Directions  for  its  construction  are  set  forth  hi  a  letter 
from  Mr.  T.  La\v  Hodges,  of  England,  to  the  late  Earl 
Spencer,  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  for  the  year  1843,  as  follows : 

"The  form  of  the  clay-kiln  is  circular,  11  feet  in  diame- 
"  ter,  and  7  feet  high.  It  is  wholly  built  of  damp,  clayey 
"  earth,  rammed  firmly  together,  and  plastered,  inside  and 
"  out,  with  loam  (clay  ?).  The  earth  to  form  the  walls  is  dug 
"  out  around  the  base,  leaving  a  circular  trench  about  four 
"  feet  wide  and  as  many  deep,  into  which  the  fire-holes  of 
"  the  kiln  open.  If  wood  be  the  fuel  used,  three  fire-holes 
"  will  be  sufficient ;  if  coal,  four  will  be  needed.  About 
"  1,200  common  brick  will  be  wanted  to  build  these  tire* 
"  holes  and  flues  ;  if  coal  is  used,  rather  fewer  bricks  will 
"  be  wanted,  but,  then,  some  iron  bars  are  necessary, — 
"  six  bars  to  each  fire-hole. 

"  The  earthen  walls  are  four  feet  thick  at  the  floor  of 
"  the  kiln,  seven  feet  high,  and  tapering  to  a  thickness  of 
"  two  feet  at  the  top ;  this  will  determine  the  slope  of  the 


184 


DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 


"  exterior  f;ice  of  the  kiln.  The  inside  of  the  wall  is  car- 
"  ried  up  perpendicularly,  and  the  loam  plastering  inside 
"  becomes,  after  tlie  first  burning,  like  a  brick  wall.  The 
"  kiln  may  be  safely  erected  in  March,  or  whenever  the 
"  danger  of  injury  from  frost  is  over.  After  the  summer 
"  use  of  it,  it  must  be  protected,  by  faggots  or  litter, 
"  against  the  wet  and  frost  of  winter.  A  kiln  of  these 
"  dimensions  will  contain  32,500  1^-iach  tiles,  *  *  * 
"  or  12,000  2-L-inch  tiles.  *  *  * 

"  In  good  weather,  this  kiln  can  be  filled,  burnt,  and 
"  discharged  once  in  every  fortnight,  and  fifteen  kilns 
"  may  be  obtained  in  a  good  season,  producing  487,500 
"  1^-inch  tiles,  and  in  proportion  for  the  other  sizes. 

"  It  requires  2  tons  5  cwt.  of  good  coals  to  burn  the 
"  above  kiln,  full  of  tiles." 

A  sectional  view  of  this  kiln  is  shown  in  Fig.  46,  in 
which  C,  G  represent  sections  of  the  outer  trench ;  A,  one 


Fig.  46. — CLAY-KILN. 

of  the  three  fire-holes  ;  and  B,  £,  sections  of  a  circular 
passage  inside  of  the  wall,  connected  with  the  fire-holes, 
and  serving  as  a  flue  for  the  flames,  which,  at  suitable  in 
tervals,  pass  through  openings  into  the  floor  of  the  kiln. 
The  whole  structure  should  be  covered  with  a  roof  of 
rough  boards,  placed  high  enough  to  be  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  fire.  A  door  in  the  side  of  the  kiln  serves  for  put- 


HOW  TO   MAKE   DRAINING   TILES.  185 

ting  in  ard  removing  the  tiles,  and  is  built  up,  tempora- 
rily, with  bricks  or  clay,  during  the  burning.  Mr.  Hodgea 
estimates  the  cost  of  this  kiln,  all  complete,  at  less  than 
$25.  Concerning  its  value,  he  wrote  another  letter  in 
1848,  from  which  the  following  is  extracted : 

"The  experience  of  four  years  that  have  clasped  since 
"my  letter  to  the  late  Earl  Spencer,  published  in  the  5th 
"  volume  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
"  Society,  page  57,  has  thoroughly  tested  the  merits  of 
"  the  temporary  clay-kilns  for  the  burning  of  draiiiing- 
"  pipes  described  in  that  letter. 

"  I  am  well  aware  that  there  we:e  persons,  even  among 
"  those  who  came  to  see  it,  who  pronounced  at  once  upon 
"the  construction  and  duration  of  the  kiln  as  unworthy 
"  of  attention.  How  far  their  expectations  have  been  real- 
"  ized,  and  what  value  belongs  to  their  judgment,  the  fol 
"  lowing  short  statement  will  exhibit : 

"  The  kiln,  in  question,  was  constructed,  in  1844,  at  a 
"  cost  of  £5. 

"  It  was  used  four  times  in  that  year,  burning  each 
"  time  between  18,000  and  19,000  draining  pipes,  of  1| 
"  inches  in  diameter. 

"  In  1845,  it  was  used  nine  times,  or  about  once  a  fort- 
"  night,  burning  each  time  the  same  quantity  of  nearly 
"  19,000  pipes. 

"  In  1846,  the  same  result. 

"  In  1847,  it  has  been  used  twelve  times,  always  burn- 
"  ing  the  same  quantity.  In  the  course  of  the  last  year  a 
"  trifling  repair  in  the  bottom  of  the  kiln,  costing  rather 
"  less  than  10  shillings,  was  necessary,  and  this  is  the  only 
"  cost  for  repair  since  its  erection.  It  is  now  as  good  as 
M  ever,  and  might  be  worked  at  least  once  a  fortnight 
M  through  the  ensuing  season. 

"  The  result  of  this  experiment  of  four  years  shows  not 
"  only  the  practical  value  of  this  cheap  kiln,  but  Mr 
u  Hatcher,  who  superintends  the  brick  and  tile-yard  at  Ben 


186  DRAINING  FOE  PEOFTT  AND  HEALTH. 

M  enden,  where  this  kiln  stands,  expresses  himself  strongly 
"  in  favor  of  this  kiln,  as  always  producing  better  and 
"  more  evenly  burned  pipes  than  either  of  his  larger  and 
"  better  built  brick-kilns  can  do." 

The  floor  of  the  kiln  is  first  covered  with  bricks,  placed 
on  end,  at  a  little  distance  from  each  other,  so  as  to  allow 
the  fire  to  pass  between  them,  and  the  tiles  are  placed  on 
end  on  these.  This  position  will  afford  the  best  draft  for 
the  flames.  After  the  kiln  is  packed  full,  the  door-way  is 
built  up,  and  a  slow  fire  is  started, — only  enough  at  first 
to  complete  the  drying  of  the  tiles,  and  to  do  this  so 
slowly  as  not  to  warp  them  out  of  shape.  They  will  be 
thoroughly  dry  when  the  smoke  from  the  top  of  the  kiln 
loses  its  dark  color  and  becomes  transparent.  When  the 
fires  are  well  started,  the  mouths  of  the  fire-holes  may  be 
built  up  so  as  to  leave  only  sufficient  room  to  put  in  fresh 
fuel,  and  if  the  wind  is  high,  the  tire-holes,  on  the  side 
against  which  it  blows,  should  be  sheltered  by  some  sort 
of  screen  which  will  counteract  its  influence,  and  keep  up 
an  even  heat  on  all  sides. 

The  time  required  for  burning  will  be  from  two  days  and 
a  night  to  four  days  and  four  nights,  according  to  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  tiles,  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  character 
of  the  fuel.  The  fires  should  be  drawn  when  the  tiles  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  kiln  are  burned  to  a  "  ringing  "  hard- 
ness. By  leaving  two  or  three  holes  in  the  door-way, 
which  can  be  stopped  with  loose  brick,  a  rod  may  be  run 
in,  from  time  to  time,  to  take  out  specimen  tiles  from  the 
hottest  part  of  the  kiln,  which  shall  have  been  so  placed 
as  to  be  easily  removed.  The  best  plan,  however, — the 
only  i  rudent  plan,  in  fact, — will  be  to  employ  an  intelli- 
gent man  who  is  thoroughly  experienced  in  the  burning 
of  brick  ar.d  pottery,  and  whose  judgment  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  fires,  and  in  the  cooling  off  of  the  kiln,  will 
save  much  of  the  waste  that  would  result  from  inexperi- 
enced management.  After  the  burning  is  completed,  from 


HOW   TO   MAKE   DRAINING   TILES.  18? 

40  to  60  hours  must  be  allowed  for  the  cooling  of  the  kiln 
before  it  is  opened.  If  the  cold  air  is  admitted  while  it  is 
still  very  hot,  the  unequal  contraction  of  the  material  will 
cause  the  tiles  to  crack,  and  a  large  portion  of  them  may 
be  destroyed. 

If  any  of  the  tiles  are  too  much  burned,  they  will  be 
melted,  and  may  stick  together,  or,  at  least,  Lave  their 
shape  destroyed.  Those  which  are  not  sufficiently  burn- 
ed would  not  withstand  the  action  of  the  water  in  the 
soil,  and  should  not  be  used.  For  the  first  of  these  acci- 
dents there  is  no  remedy ;  for  the  latter,  reburning  will 
be  necessary,  and  under-done  tiles  may  be  left,  (or  replac- 
ed,) in  the  kiln  in  the  position  which  they  occupied  at  the 
first  burning,  and  the  second  heat  will  probably  prove  suffi- 
cient. There  is  less  danger  of  unequal  burning  in  circu- 
lar than  in  square  kilns.  Soft  wood  is  better  than  hard, 
as  making  a  better  flame.  It  should  be  split  fine,  and  well 
seasoned. 

Arrangement  Of  the  Tilery.— Such  a  tilery  as  is  de- 
scribed above  should  have  a  drying  shed  from  60  to  80 
feet  long,  and  from  12  to  18  feet  wide.  This  shed  may  be 
built  in  the  cheapest  and  roughest  manner,  the  roof  being 
covered  with  felting,  thatch,  or  hemlock  boards,  as  econo- 
my may  suggest.  It  should  have  a  tier  of  drying  shelves, 
(made  of  slats  rather  than  of  boards,)  running  the  whole 
length  of  each  side.  A  narrow,  wooden  tram-way,  down 
the  middle,  to  carry  a  car,  by  which  the  green  tiles  may 
be  taken  from  the  machine  to  the  shelves,  and  the  dry 
ones  from  the  shelves  to  the  kiln,  will  greatly  lessen  the 
cost  of  handling. 

The  pug-mill  and  tile-machine,  as  well  as  the  clay  pit 
and  the  washing-mill,  should  be  at  one  end  of  the  shed, 
and  the  kiln  at  the  other,  so  that,  even  in  rainy  weathei 
the  work  may  proceed  without  interruption.  A  shed  of 
the  size  named  will  be  sufficient  to  dry  as  many  tiles  of 


188  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

assorted  sizes  as  can  be  burned  in  the  clay-kiln  described 
above. 

The  Cost  of  Tiles,— It  would  be  impossible,  at  anj 
time,  to  say  what  should  be  the  precise  cost  of  tiles  in  a 
given  locality,  without  knowing  the  prices  of  labor  ami 
fuel ;  and  in  the  present  unsettled  condition  of  the  cur- 
rency, any  estimate  would  necessarily  be  of  little  value. 
M-.  Parker's  estimated  the  cost  of  inch  pipes  in  England  at 
6a.,  (about  $1.50,)  per  thousand,  when  made  on  the  estate 
where  they  were  to  be  used,  by  a  process  similar  to  that 
described  herein.  Probably  they  could  at  no  time  have 
been  made  for  less  than  twice  that  cost  in  the  United  States, 
— and  they  would  now  cost  much  more ;  though  if  the  clay 
is  dug  out  in  the  fall,  when  the  regularly  employed  farm 
hands  are  short  of  work,  and  if  the  same  men  can  cut  and 
haul  the  wood  during  the  winter,  the  hands  hired  especially 
for  the  tile  making,  during  the  summer  season,  (two  men 
and  two  or  three  boys,)  cannot,  even  at  present  rates  of 
wages,  bring  the  cost  of  the  tiles  to  nearly  the  market 
prices.  If  there  be  only  temporary  use  for  the  machinery 
it  may  be  sold,  when  no  longer  needed,  for  a  good  per- 
centage of  its  original  cost,  as,  from  the  slow  movement 
to  which  it  is  subjected,  it  is  not  much  worn  by  its  work. 

There  is  no  reason  why  tiles  should  cost  more  to  make 
than  bricks.  A  common  brick  contains  clay  enough  to 
make  four  or  five  1^-inch  tiles,  and  it  will  require  about 
the  same  amount  of  fuel  to  burn  this  clay  in  one  form  as 
in  the  other.  This  advantage  in  favor  of  tiles  is  in  a 
measure  offset  by  the  greater  cost  of  handling  them,  and 
the  greater  liability  to  breakage. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  diffeient  processes  of 
the  manufacture  of  draining  tiles  has  been  given,  in  order 
that  those  who  find  it  necessary,  or  desirable,  to  establish 
works  to  supply  the  needs  of  their  immediate  localities 
may  commence  their  operations  understand ingly,  and  form 


HOW   TO   MAKE   DRAINING   TILES.  188 

an  approximate  opinion  of  the  promise  of  success  in  tho 
undertaking. 

Probably  the  most  positive  effect  of  the  foregoing  de- 
scription, on  the  mind  of  any  man  who  contemplates  estab- 
lishing a  tilery,  will  be  to  cause  him  to  visit  some  success- 
ful manufactory,  during  the  busy  season,  and  examine  for 
himself  the  mode  of  operation.  Certainly  it  would  be  un- 
wise, when  such  a  personal  examination  of  the  process  is 
practicable,  to  rely  entirely  upon  the  aid  of  written  descrip- 
tions ;  for,  in  any  work  like  tile-making,  where  the  selec- 
tion, combination  and  preparation  of  the  materials,  the 
means  of  drying,  and  the  economy  and  success  of  the 
burning  must  depend  on  a  variety  of  conditions  and  circum- 
stances, which  change  with  every  change  of  locality,  it  is 
impossible  that  written  directions,  however  minute,  should 
be  a  sufficient  guide.  Still,  in  the  light  of  such  directions, 
one  can  form  a  much  better  idea  of  the  bearing  of  the 
different  operations  which  he  may  witness,  than  he  could 
possibly  do  if  the  whole  process  were  new  to  him. 

If  a  personal  examination  of  a  successful  tilery  is  im- 
practicable, it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  a  practical 
brick-maker,  or  potter,  to  direct  the  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  the  works,  and  in  any  case,  this  course  is  advisable. 

In  any  neighborhood  where  twro  or  three  hundred  acres 
of  land  are  to  be  drained,  if  suitable  earths  can  be  readily 
obtained,  it  will  be  cheaper  to  establish  a  tile-yard,  ihan 
to  haul  the  necessary  tiles,  in  wagons,  a  distance  of  ten  or 
twenty  miles.  Then  again,  the  prices  demanded  by  the 
few  manufacturers,  who  now  have  almost  a  monopoly  of 
the  business,  are  exorbitantly  high, — at  least  twice  what 
it  will  cost  to  make  the  tiles  at  home,  with  the  cheap 
works  described  above,  so  that  if  the  cost  of  transporta 
tion  on  the  quantity  desired  would  be  equal  to  the  cost  of 
establishing  the  works,  there  will  be  a  decided  profit  in 
the  home  manufacture.  Probably,  also,  a  tile-yard,  in  a 
neighborhood  where  the  general  character  of  the  soil  u 


190 


GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILES 


There  are  three  general  types  of  speed-change  gear  sets: 
(1)  Selective  sliding  gears,  which  are  arranged  so  that  any 
of  the  speeds  can  be  selected  at  will.  (2)  Progressive  sliding 
gears,  which  do  not  permit  selection  of  speeds  at  random,  but 
the  speed  changes  must  be  in  a  definite  order  or  in  succession, 
that  is,  one  cannot  for  a  three-speed  gear  move  the  gear 
shifting  lever  out  of  the  position  for  high  speed,  put  it  into 
" neutral"  position,  and  then  immediately  into  the  low-speed 
position.  When  using  this  kind  of  speed-change  gears,  it  is 
necessary  to  actually  put  in  contact  the  gears  of  the  inter- 
mediate speed  before  low-speed  gears  can  be  put  together. 
(3)  Planetary  gears,  which  are  a  combination  of  a  clutch 
and  a  simplified  sliding  gear  set.  The  first  and  third  arrange- 
ments are  most  used. 

Selective  Sliding  Gear  Type.  Fig.  164  shows,  somewhat 
simplified  as  to  details,  a  speed-change  gear  set  of  the  selective 


FIG.  164. — Direct  Drive  on 
Selective  Sliding  Gears. 


FIG.  165. — Low-speed  Gearing. 


kind  arranged  for  sliding  operation.  Two  shafts  8  and  T  are 
shown  in  this  figure.  The  left-hand  end  of  the  shaft  S  is 
rigidly  connected  to  the  clutch  and  therefore  rotates  normally 
at  engine  speed.  This  shaft  as  shown  here  is  not  continuous 
but  is  really  two  separate  shafts  which  meet  end  to  end  and 
are  coupled  together.  The  two  shafts  can  be  separated  as 
shown  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  165.  When  the  shaft  82  is 
coupled  to  Sl  as  in  Fig.  164,  both  shafts  will  rotate  at  engine 


that  the  power  strokes,  although  powerful,  are  so  far  apart  that  there 
is  not  sufficient  carrying  power  from  one  power  stroke  to  the  next,  and 
as  a  result  the  engine  stops. 


CLUTCHES,  TRANSMISSIONS,  AND  DIFFERENTIALS     191 

speed.  This  is  called  direct  drive  or  high  speed.  In  either 
position  of  S2,  however,  the  gear  wheel  A  on  Si  is  meshed  with 
the  gear  wheel  B,  which  moves  the  shaft  T. 

When  the  automobile  is  to  be  operated  at  lowest  speed, 
the  gear  wheels  A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  used.  Since  the  gear 
wheel  B  is  always  in  mesh  with  the  gear  wheel  A  on  the 
shaft  $!  the  shaft  T  is  always  rotating  when  the  engine  is 
running.  On  the  shaft  S2  is  a  gear  wheel  D  which  is  free 
to  slide  on  its  shaft.  When  the  shafts  8^  and  S2  are  discon- 
nected, if  by  some  method  or  device  the  gear  wheel  D  is  made 
to  slide  into  contact  or  mesh  with  the  gear  wheel  C  opposite 
on  the  shaft  T,  the  shaft  S2  will  be  driven  through  the  four 
gear  wheels  A,  B,  C,  D.  The  engine  shaft  8:  will  then  rotate 
much  faster  than  the  shaft  S2.  Difference  in  the  sizes  of  the 
gear  wheels  makes  this  speed  change.  Suppose  A  has  half 
as  many  teeth  as  B,  and  that  C  has  half  as  many  as  D.  Then 
the  shaft  T  will  rotate  half  as  fast  as  S: ;  and  the  shaft  82 
will  rotate  half  as  fast  as  T,  or  one-fourth  as  fast  as  S1}  which 
is  a  satisfactory  speed  reduction  for  low-speed  gears  as 
actually  used  in  automobiles.* 

An  intermediate  speed  between  direct  drive  (engine  speed) 
and  low  speed  can  be  obtained  very  simply  by  providing,  in 
addition,  a  sliding  gear  wheel  E  on  the  shaft  T  and  a  stationary 
gear  wheel  F  on  the  shaft  S2.  When  E  and  F  are  meshed  and 
C  and  D  are  out  of  mesh,  the  shaft  T  will  rotate  at  half  the 
speed  of  the  shaft  St ;  and  if  E  and  F  have  the  same  number 
of  teeth,  the  shaft  82  will  rotate  also  at  half  the  speed  of  $,. 

For  reverse  speed,  the  gearing  arrangement  is  shown 
diagrammatically  in  Fig  166.  An  auxiliary  gear  wheel  R 
on  a  short  shaft  U  is  made  to  mesh  with  another  sliding  gear 
wheel  K  on  the  shaft  T.  This  is  not  a  practical  case,  but 
in  a  simple  way  shows  the  principle.  The  directions  of  rota- 
tion of  the  shafts  Slf  T,  U  and  S2  are  shown  clearly  by  arrows 
in  the  figure.  As  the  gears  were  arranged  in  Figs.  164  and 


*  Sliding  speed-change   gears   are   really  only  a  modification   of  the 
back-gearing  used  commonly  on  lathes  of  various  kinds. 


192 


GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILES 


165  the  shaft  S2  was  driven  anticlockwise  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  $j,  while  its  rotation  in  Fig.  166  for  reverse  speed 
is  clockwise,  which  gives  a  backward  or  reverse  movement  of 
the  automobile. 

Fig.  167  shows  a  commercial  design  of  sliding  speed-change 
gears  somewhat  differently  arranged,  and  provision  is  made 
for  mechanically  shifting  the  gears  by  the  use  of  a  hand 
operating  lever  L,  shown  attached  to  a  joint  /  at  the  top  of 
the  gear  case.  The  letters  in  this  figure  correspond  to  those 
used  in  Figs.  164,  165,  and  166.  In  the  operation  of  shifting 
gears,  the  lever  L  moves  back  and  forth  so  that  the  short 
lever  or  "finger"  F  engages  with  the  shifting  forks  or  yokes 
H  and  J.  One  of  these  controls  the  low  speed,  and  the  other 


FIG.  166. — Reverse  Gearing. 

the  intermediate  speed  and  the  high-speed  gears.  In  order 
to  move  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  shifting  forks  or  yokes 
H  or  /  the  lever  L  can  be  moved  back  and  forth  through 
the  top  of  the  gear  box  by  swinging  on  the  joint  /.  The 
operator  of  the  automobile .  can  pass  directly  from  any  set 
of  gears  to  any  other ;  that  is,  he  can  select  any  gear  desired. 
For  this  reason  this  arrangement  is  called  the  selective  type 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  progressive  type  which  was  once 
commonly  used  on  automobiles,  but  is  now  only  used  on  motor- 
cycles. 

The  important  advantages  of  selective  speed-change  gears 
Are  that  the  gears  can  be  shifted  rapidly  and  the  gear  teeth 
are  less  likely  to  be  broken  off  or  "stripped"  than  in  the 
progressive  type.  Selective  gears  are  also  more  compact, 


CLUTCHES,  TRANSMISSIONS,  AND  DIFFERENTIALS     193 


making  possible  shorter  and  therefore,  stiffer  shafts  in  the 
gear  box. 

These  descriptions  of  sliding  gear  sets  have  referred  to 


To  Engine 
CrankSt 


"     l-5' 

^  Jo  Axle  Drive  Shaft 

•Drive  End 


"ForLowSpeea 
'•For  Informed iafv  Speed 
FIG.  167. — Typical  Speed-Change  Gears  or  Transmission. 

three  speeds  ahead  and   one   reverse.     Some  sets,  however, 
particularly  those  intended  for  very  high  speed  automobiles 


Neutral  Gear  Position 


Fig.  168.  —  Gear  Wheels  A  and  B  connected. 


are  supplied  with  gears  giving  four  speeds  ahead.  The  fourth 
speed  is  sometimes  arranged  to  drive  the  axle  drive  shaft 
corresponding  to  S2  in  the  preceding  figures  faster  than  the 


194  DBA1N1NG   FOB   PROFIT  A5D   HEALTH. 

11  formerly  choked  up  the  mouths  of  these  great  river*. 
M  But  the  chief  hindrance  caused  by  the  oceaii,  arose  from 
"  the  tide  rushing  twice  every  day  for  a  very  great  di* 
"  tance  up  these  channels,  driving  back  the  fresh  waters, 
"  and  overflowing  with  them,  so  that  the  whole  level  be- 
K  came  deluged  with  deep  water,  and  was,  in  fact,  one 
"  great  bay." 

"  In  considering  the  state  of  this  region  as  it  first  at- 
"  tracted  the  enterprise  of  man  to  its  improvement,  we 
"  are  to  conceive  a  vast,  wild  morass,  with  only  small,  de- 
"  tached  portions  of  cultivated  soil,  or  islands,  raised  above 
"  the  general  inundation ;  a  most  desolate  picture  when 
"  contrasted  with  its  present  state  of  matchless  fertility." 

Salt  marshes  are  formed  of  the  silty  deposits  of  rivers 
atid  of  the  sea.  The  former  bring  down  vegetable  mould 
and  fine  earth  from  the  uplands,  and  the  latter  contribute 
sea  weeds  and  grasses,  sand  and  shells,  and  millions  of 
animalcule  which,  born  for  life  in  salt  water  only,  die, 
and  are  deposited  with  the  other  matters,  at  those  points 
where,  from  admixture  with  the  fresh  flow  of  the  rivers,  the 
water  ceases  to  be  suitable  for  their  support.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  these  animalculae  alone  are  a  chief  cause  of 
the  obstructions  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  of  Holland, 
which  retard  their  flow,  and  cause  them  to  spread  over  the 
flat  country  adjoining  their  banks.  It  is  less  important, 
however,  for  the  purposes  of  this  chapter,  to  consider  the 
manner  in  which  salt  marshes  are  formed,  than  to  discuss 
the  means  by  which  they  may  be  reclaimed  and  made 
available  for  the  uses  of  agriculture.  The  improvement 
may  be  conveniently  considered  under  three  heads :  — 

First— The  exclusion  of  the  sea  water. 

Second— The  removal  of  the  causes  of  inundation  from 
the  upland. 

Third— The  removal  of  the  rain-fall  and  water  of  filtra- 
tion. 


THE    RECLAMING   OF   SALT   MARSHES.  195 

The  Exclusion  of  the  Sea  is  of  the  first  import- 
ance,  1  ecause  not  only  does  it  saturate  the  land  with  wa- 
ter,— but  this  water,  being  salt,  renders  it  unfertile  for  the 
plants  of  ordinary  cultivation,  and  causes  it  to  produce 
others  which  are  of  little,  or  no  value. 

The  only  means  by  which  the  sea  may  be  kept  out  is, 
by  building  such  dykes  or  embankments  as  shut  out  tho 
highest  tides,  and,  on  shores  which  are  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  waves,  will  resist  their  force.  Ordinarily,  the 
best,  because  the  cheapest,  material  of  which  these  em- 
bankments can  be  made,  is  the  soil  of  the  marsh  itself. 
This  is  rarely, — almost  never, — a  pure  peat,  such  as  is 
found  in  upland  swamps  ;  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
sand,  blue  clay,  muscle  mud,  or  other  earthy  deposits,  which 
give  it  great  weight  and  tenacity,  and  render  it  excellent 
for  forming  the  body  of  the  dyke.  On  lands  which  are 
overflowed  to  a  considerable  extent  at  each  high  tide, 
(twice  a  day,)  it  will  be  necessary  to  adopt  more  expensive, 
and  more  effective  measures,  but  on  ordinary  salt  meadows, 
which  are  deeply  covered  only  at  the  spring  tides,  (occur- 
ring every  month,)  the  following  plan  will  be  found  prao 
tical  and  economical. 

Locating  the  line  of  the  embankment  far  enough  bad. 
from  the  edge  of  the  meadow  to  leave  an  ample  flat  out- 
side of  it  to  break  the  force  of  the  waves,  if  on  the  open 
coast,  or  to  resist  the  inroads  of  the  current  if  on  the  bank 
of  an  estuary  or  a  river, — say  from  ten  to  one  hundred 
yards,  according  to  the  danger  of  encroachment, — set  a 
row  of  stakes  parallel  to  the  general  direction  of  the  shore, 
to  mark  the  outside  line  of  the  base  of  the  dyke.  Stake 
out  the  inside  line  at  such  distance  as  will  give  a  pitch  or 
inclination  to  the  slopes  of  one  and  a  half  to  one  on  the 
outside,  and  of  one  to  one  on  the  inside,  and  will  allow 
the  necessary  width  at  the  top,  which  should  be  at  least 
two  feet  higher  than  the  level  of  the  highest  tide  that  is 
known  ever  to  have  occurred  at  that  place.  The  widtb 


196  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

of  the  top  should  never  be  less  than  four  feet,  and  in  ex- 
posed localities  it  should  be  more.  If  a  road  will  be  needed 
around  the  land,  it  is  best,  if  a  heavy  dyke  is  required,  to 
make  it  wide  enough  to  answer  this  purpose,  with  still 
wider  places,  at  intervals,  to  allow  vehicles  to  turn  or  to  pass 
each  other.  Ordinarily,  however,  especially  if  there  be  a 
good  stretch  of  flat  meadow  in  front,  the  top  of  the  dyke 
need  not  be  more  than  four  feet  wide.  Supposing  such  a 
dyke  to  be  contemplated  where  the  water  has  been  known 
to  rise  two  feet  above  the  level  of  the  meadows,  requiring 
an  embankment  four  feet  high,  it  will  be  necessary  to  al- 
low for  the  base  a  width  of  fourteen  feet ; — four  feet  for 
the  width  of  the  top,  six  feet  for  the  reach  of  the  front 
slope,  (t.J-  to  1,)  and  four  feet  for  the  reach  of  the  back 
slope,  (1  to  1.) 

Having  staked  out  two  parallel  lines,  fourteen  feet  apart, 
and  erected,  at  intervals  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  frames 
made  of  rough  strips  of  board  of  the  exact  shape  of  the 
section  of  the  proposed  embankment,  the  workmen  may 
remove  the  sod  to  a  depth  of  six  inches,  laying  it  all  on 
the  outside  of  the  position  of  the  proposed  embankment. 
The  sod  from  the  line  of  the  ditch,  from  which  the  earth 
for  the  embankment  is  to  be  taken,  should  also  be  removed 
and  placed  with  the  other.  This  ditch  should  be  always 
inside  of  the  dyke,  where  it  will  never  be  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  sea.  It  should  be,  at  the  surface,  broader 
than  the  base  of  the  dyke,  and  five  feet  deep  in  the  center, 
but  its  sides  may  slope  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  di- 
rectly to  the  center  line  of  the  bottom.  This  is  the  best 
form  to  give  it,  because,  while  it  should  be  five  feet  deep, 
for  future  uses  as  a  drain,  its  bottom  need  have  no  width. 
The  great  width  at  the  surface  will  give  such  a  pitch  to 
the  banks  as  to  ensure  their  stability,  and  will  yield  a  large 
amount  of  sod  for  the  facing  of  the  dyke.  The  edge  of 
this  ditch  should  be  some  feet  away  from  the  inner  line  of 
the  embankment,  leaving  it  a  firm  support  or  shoulder  at 


THE   RECLAIMING   OP   SALT  MARSHES.  197 

the  original  level  of  the  ground,  the  sod  not  being  remov- 
ed from  the  interval.  The  next  step  in  the  work  should 
be  to  throw,  or  wheel,  the  material  from  the  ditch  on  to 
the  place  which  has  been  stripped  for  the  dyke,  build- 
ing it  up  so  as  to  conform  exactly  to  the  profile  frames, 
these  remaining  in  their  places,  to  indicate  the  filling  neces- 
sary to  make  up  for  the  settling  of  the  material,  as  the 
water  drains  out  of  it. 

As  fast  as  a  permanent  shape  can  be  given  to  the  outer 
face  of  the  dyke,  it  should  be  finished  by  having  the  sod 
placed  against  it,  being  laid  flatwise,  one  on  top  of  anoth- 
er, (like  stone  work,)  in  the  most  solid  manner  possible. 
This  should  be  continued  to  the  top  of  the  slope,  and  the 
flat  top  of  the  dyke  should  also  be  sodded, — the  sods  on 
the  top,  and  on  the  slope,  being  firmly  beaten  to  their  places 
with  the  back  of  the  spade  or  other  suitable  implement. 


FilJ.  47. — DYKE    AM)   DITCH. 

This  will  sufficiently  protect  the  exposed  parts  of  the  work 
against  the  action  of  any  waves  that  may  be  formed  on 
the  flat  between  the  dyke  and  the  deep  water,  while  the 
inner  slope  and  the  banks  of  the  ditch,  not  being  exposed 
to  masses  of  moving  water,  will  retain  their  shape  and 
will  "soon  be  covered  with  a  new  growth.*  A  sectional 
view  of  the  above  described  dyke  and  ditch  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  diagram,  (Fig.  47.) 

*  The  ends  of  the  work,  while  the  operation?  are  suspended  during 
spring  tides,  will  need  an  extra  protection  of  sods,  but  that,  lying  out  of 
reach  of  the  eddies  that  will  be  formed  by  the  receding  water  will  not  be 
materially  affected. 


198  DRAINING  FOE   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

In  all  work  of  this  character,  it  is  important  to  regulate 
the  amount  of  work  laid  out  to  be  done  between  the 
spring  tides,  to  the  laboring  force  employed,  so  that  no  un- 
finished work  will  remain  to  be  submerged  and  injured. 
When  the  flood  comes,  it  should  find  everything  finished 
up  and  protected  against  its  ravages,  so  that  no  part  of  it 
need  be  done  over  again. 

If  the  land  is  crossed  by  creeks,  the  dyke  should  be  fin- 
ished off  and  sodded,  a  little  back  from  each  bank,  and 
when  the  time  comes  for  closing  the  channel,  sufficient 
force  should  be  employed  to  complete  the  dam  at  a  single 
tide,  so  that  the  returning  flow  shall  not  enter  to  wash 
away  the  material  which  has  been  thrown  in. 

If,  as  is  often  the  case,  these  creeks  are  not  merely  tidal 
estuaries,  but  receive  brooks  or  rivers  from  the  upland, 
provision  must  be  made,  as  will  be  hereafter  directed,  for 
either  diverting  the  upland  flow,  or  for  allowing  it  to  pass 
out  at  low  water,  through  valve  gates  or  sluices.  When 
the  dam  has  been  made,  the  water  behind  it  should  never 
be  allowed  to  rise  to  nearly  the  level  of  the  full  tide,  and, 
as  soon  as  possible,  grass  and  willows  should  be  grown  on 
the  bank,  to  add  to  its  strength  by  the  binding  effect  of 
their  roots. 

When  the  dyke  is  completed  across  the  front  of  the 
whole  flat, — from  the  high  land  on  one  side  to  the  high 
land  on  the  other,  the  creeks  should  be  closed,  one  after 
the  other,  commencing  with  the  smallest,  so  that  the  ex- 
perience gained  in  their  treatment  may  enable  the  force 
to  work  more  advantageously  on  those  which  carry  more 
water. 

If  the  flow  of  water  in  the  creek  is  considerable,  a  row 
of  strong  stakes,  or  piles,  should  be  firmly  driven  into  the 
bottom  mud,  across  the  whole  width  of  the  channel,  at  in- 
tervals of  not  more  than  one  or  two  feet,  and  fascines, — 
bundles  of  brush  bound  together, — should  be  made  ready 
on  the  banks,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  close  the  spaces  be- 


THB   KBJLAIMLffG   OF  SALT  MARSHKS.  199 

tween  the  piles.  These  will  serve  to  prevent  the  washing 
away  of  the  filling  during  construction.  The  pile  driving, 
and  the  preparation  of  the  fascines  may  be  done  before 
the  closing  of  the  channel  with  earth  is  commenced,  and 
if  upland  clay  or  gravel,  to  be  mixed  with  the  local  mate- 
rial, can  be  economically  brought  to  the  place  by  boats  or 
wagons,  it  will  be  an  advantage.  Everything  being  in 
readiness,  a  sufficient  force  of  laborers  to  finish  the  dam  in 
six  hours  should  commence  the  work  a  little  before  dead 
low-water,  and,  (with  the  aid  of  wheelbarrows,  if  neces- 
sary,) throw  the  earth  in  rapidly  behind  the  row  of  stakes 
and  fascines,  giving  the  dam  sufficient  width  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  water  from  without,  and  keeping  the  work 
always  in  advance  of  the  rising  of  the  tide,  so  that,  during 
the  whole  operation,  none  of  the  filling  shall  be  washed 
away  by  water  flowing  over  its  top. 

If  the  creek  has  a  sloping  bottom,  the  work  may  be 
commenced  earlier, — is  soon  as  the  tide  commences  to  re- 
cede,— and  pushed  out  to  the  center  of  the  channel  by  the 
time  the  tide  is  out.  When  the  dam  is  built,  it  will  be 
best  to  heavily  sod,  or  otherwise  protect  its  surface  against 
the  action  of  heavy  rains,  which  would  tend  to  wash  it 
away  and  weaken  it;  and  the  bed  of  the  creek  should  be 
filled  in  back  of  the  dam  for  a  distance  of  at  least  fifty 
yards,  to  a  height  greater  than  that  at  which  water  will 
stand  in  the  interior  drains, — say  to  within  three  feet  of 
the  surface, — so  that  there  shall  never  be  a  body  of  water 
standing  within  that  distance  of  the  dam. 

This  is  a  necessary  precaution  against  the  attacks  of  musk- 
rats,  which  are  the  principal  cause  of  the  insecurity  of  all 
salt  marsh  embankments.  It  should  be  a  cardinal  rule 
with  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  construction  of  such 
works,  never  to  allow  two  bodies  of  water,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  bank  to  be  nearer  than  twenty-five  yards  of  each 
other,  and  fifty  yards  would  be  better.  Muskrats  do  not 
bore  through  a  bank,  as  is  often  supposed,  to  make  a  pa* 


200  DRAINING    FOB  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

sage  from  one  body  of  water  to  another,  (they  would  find 
an  easier  road  over  the  top) ;  but  they  delight  in  any  ele- 
vated mound  in  which  they  can  make  their  homes  above 
the  water  level  and  have  its  entrance  beneath  the  surface, 
so  that  their  land  enemies  cannot  invade  them.  When 
they  enter  for  this  purpose,  only  from  one  side  of  the  dyke, 
ihey  will  do  no  harm,  but  if  another  colony  is,  at  the  same 
time,  boring  in  from  the  other  side,  there  is  great  danger 
that  their  burrows  will  connect,  and  thus  form  a  channel  for 
the  admission  of  water,  and  destroy  the  work.  A  disre- 
gard of  this  requirement  has  caused  thousands  of  acres  of 
salt  marsh  that  had  been  enclosed  by  dykes  having  a 
ditch  on  each  side,  (much  the  cheapest  way  to  make  them,) 
to  be  abandoned,  and  it  has  induced  the  invention  of  va- 
rious costly  devices  for  the  protection  of  embankments 
against  these  attacks.* 

When  the  creek  or  estuary  to  be  cut  off  is  very  wide, 
the  embankment  may  be  carried  out,  at  leisure,  from  each 
side,  until  the  channel  is  only  wide  enough  to  allow  the 
passage  of  the  tide  without  too  great  a  rush  of  water 
against  the  unfinished  ends  of  the  work ;  but,  even  in  these 
cases,  there  will  be  economy  in  the  use  of  fascines  and  piles 
from  the  first,  or  of  stones  if  these  can  be  readily  procur- 
ed. In  wide  streams,  partial  obstructions  of  the  water 

*  The  latest  invention  of  this  sort,  is  that  of  a  series  of  cast  iron  plates, 
set  on  edge,  riveted  together,  and  driven  in  to  such  a  depth  as  to  reach 
from  the  top  of  the  dyke  to  a  point  below  low-water  mark.  The  best 
that  can  be  said  of  this  plan  is,  that  its  adoption  would  do  no  harm.  Un- 
less the  plates  are  driven  deeply  into  the  clay  underlying  the  permeable 
foil,  (and  this  is  sometimes  very  deep,)  they  would  not  prevent  the 
slight  infiltration  of  water  which  could  pass  under  them  as  well  as 
through  any  other  part  of  the  soil,  and  unless  the  iron  were  very  thick, 
the  corrosive  action  of  salt  water  would  soon  so  honeycomb  it  that  the 
borers  would  easily  penetrate  it;  but  the  great  objection  to  the  use  of 
these  plates  is,  that  they  would  be  very  costly  and  ineffectual.  A  dyke, 
made  as  described  above,  of  the  material  of  the  locality,  having  a  ditch 
orly  on  the  inside,  and  being  well  sodded  on  its  outer  face,  would  be  fiu 
cheaper  and  better. 


THE   RECLAIMING   OF   SALT   MARSHES.  201 

course  will  sometimes  induce  the  deposit  of  silt  in  such 
quantities  as  will  greatly  assist  the  work.  No  written  de- 
scription of  a  single  process  will  suffice  for  the  direction 
of  those  having  charge  of  this  most  delicate  of  all  drain- 
age operations.  Much  must  be  left  to  the  ingenuity  of 
the  director  of  the  work,  who  will  have  to  avail  himself 
of  the  assistance  of  such  favorable  circumstances  as  may, 
in  the  case  in  hand,  offer  themselves. 

If  the  barrier  to  be  built  will  require  a  considerable  out- 
lay, it  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  competent  engi- 
neer, and  it  will  generally  demand  the  full  measure  of  his 
skill  and  experience. 

The  work  cannot  be  successful,  unless  the  whole  line  of 
the  water-front  is  protected  by  a  continuous  bank,  suffici- 
ently high  and  strong  in  all  of  its  parts  to  resist  the  ac- 
tion of  the  highest  tides  and  the  strongest  waves  to  which 
it  will  be  subjected.  As  it  is  always  open  to  inspection,  at 
each  ebb  tide,  and  can  always  be  approached  for  repair,  it 
will  be  easy  to  keep  it  in  good  condition ;  and,  if  properly 
attended  to,  it  will  become  more  solid  and  effective  with 
age. 

The  removal  of  the  causes  of  inundation  from  the  up- 
land is  often  of  almost  equal  importance  with  the  shutting 
out  of  the  sea,  since  the  amount  of  water  brought  down 
by  rivers,  brooks,  and  hill-side  wash,  is  often  more  than 
can  be  removed  by  any  practicable  means,  by  sluice  gates, 
or  pumps. 

It  will  be  quite  enough  for  the  capacity  of  these  means 
of  drainage,  to  remove  the  rain-water  which  falls  on  the 
flat  land,  and  that  which  reaches  it  by  under-ground 
springs  and  by  infiltration, — its  proper  drainage-water  in 
short, — without  adding  that  which,  coming  from  a  higher 
level,  may  be  made  to  flow  off  by  its  own  fall. 

Catch-water  drains,  near  the  foot  of  the  upland,  may  be 
BO  arranged  as  to  receive  the  surface  water  of  the  hills  and 
9* 


203  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

carry  it  off,  always  on  a  level  above  that  of  the  top  af  the 
embankment,  and  these  drains  may  often  be,  with  advan- 
tage, enlarged  to  a  sufficient  capacity  to  carry  the  streams 
as  well  If  the  marsh  is  divided  by  an  actual  river,  it 
may  be  best  to  embank  it  in  two  separate  tracts ;  losing 
the  margins,  that  have  been  recommended,  outside  o' 
the  dykes,  and  building  the  necessary  additional  length 
of  these,  rather  than  to  contend  with  a  large  body  of  wa- 
ter. But,  frequently,  a  very  large  marsh  is  traversed  by  a 
tortuous  stream  which  occupies  a  large  area,  and  which, 
although  the  tidal  water  which  it  contains  gives  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  river,  is  only  the  outlet  of  an  insignificant 
stream,  which  might  be  carried  along  the  edge  of  the  up- 
land in  an  ordinary  mill-race.  In  such  case  it  is  better  to 
divert  the  stream  and  reclaim  the  whole  area. 

When  a  stream  is  enclosed  between  dykes,  its  winding 
course  should  be  made  straight  in  order  that  its  water  may 
be  carried  off  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  land  which  it 
occupies  by  its  deviations,  made  available  for  cultivation. 
In  the  loose,  silty  soil  of  a  salt  marsh,  the  stream  may  be 
made  to  do  most  of  the  work  of  making  its  new  bed,  by 
constructing  temporary  "jetties,"  or  other  obstructions  to 
its  accustomed  flow,  which  shall  cause  its  current  to  de- 
posit silt  in  its  old  channel,  and  to  cut  a  new  one  out  of  the 
opposite  bank.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  well  to  make  an 
elevated  canal,  straight  across  the  tract,  by  constructing 
banks  high  enough  to  confine  the  stream  and  deliver  it 
over  the  top  of  the  dyke ;  in  others  it  may  be  more  ex- 
pedient to  carry  the  stream  over,  or  through,  the  hill  which 
bounds  thr  marsh,  and  cause  it  to  discharge  through  an 
adjoining  valley.  Improvements  of  this  magnitude,  which 
often  affect  the  interest  of  many  owners,  or  of  persons  in- 
terested in  the  navigation  of  the  old  channel,  or  in  mill 
privileges  below  the  point  at  which  the  water  course  is  to 
be  diverted,  will  generally  require  legislative  interference. 


THE   EECI  AIMING   OF   SALT  MARSHES.  203 

But  they  not  seldom  promise  immense  advantages  for  a 
comparatively  small  c  utlay. 

The  instance  cited  of  the  Hackensack  Meadows,  in  New 
Jersey,  is  a  case  in  point.  Its  area  is  divided  among  many 
owners,  and,  while  ninety-nine  acres  in  every  hundred  are 
given  up  to  muskrats,  mosquitoes,  coarse  rushes  and 
malaria,  the  other  one  acre  may  belong  to  the  owner  of  an 
adjacent  farm  who  values  the  salt  hay  which  it  yields  him4 
and  the  title  to  the  whole  is  vested  in  many  individual 
proprietors,  who  could  never  be  induced  to  unite  in  an  im- 
provement for  the  common  benefit.  Then  again,  thanks 
to  the  tide  that  sets  back  in  the  Hackensack  River,  it  is 
able  to  float  an  occasional  vessel  to  the  unimportant  vil- 
lages at  the  northern  end  of  the  meadows,  and  the  right 
of  navigation  can  be  interfered  with  only  by  govermental 
action.  If  the  Hackensack  River  proper,  that  part  of  it 
which  only  serves  as  an  outlet  for  the  drainage  of  the  high 
land  north  of  the  meadows,  could  be  diverted  and  carried 
through  the  hills  to  the  Passaic;  or  confined  within  straight 
elevated  banks  and  made  to  discharge  at  high  water  mark 
at  the  line  of  the  Philadelphia  Rail-road  ;  — the  wash  of 
the  highlands,  east  and  west  of  the  meadows,  being  also 
carried  off*  at  this  level, — the  bridge  of  the  railroad  might 
be  replaced  by  an  earth  embankment,  less  than  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  in  length,  effecting  a  complete  exclusion  of  the 
tidal  flow  from  the  whole  tract. 

This  being  done,  a  steam-pump,  far  less  formidable  than 
many  which  are  in  profitable  use  in  Europe  for  the  same 
purpose,  would  empty,  and  keep  empty,  the  present  bed 
of  the  river,  which  would  form  a  capital  outlet  for  the 
drainage  of  the  whole  area.  Twenty  thousand  acres,  of 
the  most  fertile  land,  would  thus  be  added  to  the  available 
area  of  the  State,  greatly  increasing  its  wealth,  and  in- 
ducing the  settlement  of  thousands  of  industrious  inhab- 
itants. 
As  the  circumstances  under  which  upland  water  reacheg 


5404  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT  AXD   HEALTH. 

lands  of  the  class  under  consideration  vary  with  every 
locality,  no  specific  directions  for  the  treatment  of  individ- 
ual cases  can  be  given  within  the  limits  of  this  chapter; 
but  the  problem  will  rarely  be  a  difficult  one. 

The  removal  of  the  rain-fall  and  water  of  filtration 
is  the  next  point  to  be  considered. 

So  far  as  the  drainage  of  the  land,  in  detail,  is  concerned, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  it  may  be  accomplished,  as 
in  the  case  of  any  other  level  land  which,  from  the  slight 
fall  that  can  be  allowed  the  drains,  requires  close  attention 
and  great  care  in  the  adjustment  of  the  grades. 

The  main  difficulty  is  in  providing  an  outlet  for  the 
drains.  This  can  only  be  done  by  artificial  means,  as  the 
water  must  be  removed  from  a  level  lower  than  high-wa- 
ter mark, — sometimes  lower  than  low  water. 

If  it  is  only  required  that  t'ne  outlet  be  at  a  point  some- 
what above  the  level  of  ordinary  low-water,  it  will  be  suf 
ficient  to  provide  a  sufficient  reservoir,  (usually  a  large 
open  ditch,)  to  contain  the  drainage  water  that  is  dis- 
charged while  the  tide  stands  above  tlie  floor  of  the  out- 
let sluice-way,  and  to  provide  for  its  outflow  while  the 
level  of  the  tide  water  is  below  the  point  of  discharge. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  sluices  having  self-acting  valves, 
(or  tide-gates,)  opening  outward,  which  will  be  closed  by 
the  weight  of  the  water  when  the  tide  rises  against  them, 
being  opened  again  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  from 
within,  as  soon  the  tide  falls  below  the  level  of  the  water 
inside  of  the  bank. 

The  gates  and  sluices  may  be  of  wood  or  iron, — square 
or  round.  The  best  would  be  galvanized  iron  pipes  and 
valves ;  but  a  square  wooden  trunk,  closed  with  a  heavy 
oak  gate  that  fits  closely  against  its  outer  end,  and  moves 
freely  on  its  hinges,  will  answer  capitally  well,  if  carefully 
and  strongly  made.  If  the  gate  is  of  wood,  it  will  be 
well  to  have  it  lie  in  a  slightly  slanting  position,  so  that  its 
own  weight  will  tend  to  keep  it  closed  when  the  tide  first 


THK   RECLAIMING   OF   SALT    MARSHES.  205 

commences  to  rise  above  the  floor,  and  might  trickle  in, 
before  it  had  acquired  sufficient  head  to  press  the  gate 
against  the  end  of  the  trunk. 

As  this  outlet  has  to  remove,  in  a  short  time,  all  of  the 
water  that  is  delivered  by  the  drains  and  ditches  during 
several  hours,  it  should,  of  course,  be  considerably  larger 
than  would  be  required  for  a  constantly  flowing  drain  from 
the  same  area ;  but  the  immense  gates, — large  enough  for 
a  can ul  lock, — which  are  sometimes  used  for  the  drainage 
of  a  few  acres  of  marsh,  are  absurd.  Not  only  are  they 
useless,  they  are  really  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  the 
greater  extent  of  their  joints  increases  the  risk  of  leakage 
at  the  time  of  high  water. 

The  channel  for  the  outflow  of  the  water  may  some- 
times, with  advantage,  be  open  to  the  top  of  the  dyke  or 
dam, — a  canal  instead  of  a  trunk ;  but  this  is  rarely  the 
better  plan,  and  is  only  admissible  where  the  discharge  is 
into  a  river  or  small  bay,  too  small  for  the  formation  of 
high  waves,  as  these  would  be  best  received  on  the  face 
of  a  well  sodded,  sloping  bank 

The  height,  above  absolute  low  water,  at  which  the  outlet 
should  be  placed,  will  depend  on  the  depth  of  the  outlet 
of  the  land  drain,  and  the  depth  of  storage  room  required 
to  receive  the  drainage  water  during  the  higher  stages  of 
the  tide.  Of  course,  it  must  not  be  higher  than  the  floor 
of  the  land  drain  outlet,  and,  except  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  storage  room,  it  need  not  be  lower,  although  all 
the  drainage  will  discharge,  not  only  while  the  tide  water 
is  below  the  bottom  of  the  gate,  but  as  long  as  it  remains 
ower  than  the  level  of  the  water  inside.  It  is  well  to  place 
the  mouth  of  the  trunk  nearly  as  low  as  ordinary  low-wa- 
ter mark.  This  will  frequently  render  it  necessary  to  carry 
a  covered  drain,  of  wood  or  brick,  through  the  mud,  out 
as  far  as  the  tide  usually  recedes,— connected  with  the 
valve  gate  at  the  outlet  of  the  trunk,  by  a  covered  box 


206  DRAINING    FOB   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

which  will  keep  rubbish  from  obstructing  it,  or  interferirg 
with  its  action. 

When  the  outlet  of  the  land-drains  is  below  low-water 
mark,  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  pump  out  the  drainage 
water.  This  is  done  by  steam  or  by  wind,  the  latter  be- 
ing economical  only  for  small  tracts  which  will  not  bear 
the  cost  of  a  steam  pump.  Formerly,  this  work  was  done 
entirely  by  windmills,  but  these  afford  only  an  uncertain 
power,  and  often  cause  the  entire  loss  of  crops  which  are 
ready  for  the  harvest,  by  obstinately  refusing  to  work  for 
days  after  a  heavy  rain  has  deluged  the  land.  In  grass 
land  they  are  tolerably  reliable,  and  on  small  tracts  in 
cultivation,  it  is  easy,  by  having  a  good  proportion  of 
open  ditches,  to  afford  storage  room  sufficient  for  general 
security ;  but  in  the  reclaiming  of  large  areas,  (and  it  is 
with  these  that  the  work  is  most  economical,)  the  sU-am 
pump  may  be  regarded  as  indispensable.  It  is  fast  super- 
seding the  windmills  which,  a  few  years  ago,  were  the  sole 
dependence  in  Holland  and  on  the  English  Fens.  The 
magnitude  of  the  pumping  machinery  on  which  the  agricul- 
ture of  a  large  part  of  Holland  depends,  is  astonishing. 
There  are  such  immense  areas  of  salt  marsh  in  the 
United  States  which  may  be  tolerably  drained  by  the  use 
of  simple  valve  gates,  discharging  above  low-water  mark, 
that  it  is  not  very  important  to  consider  the  question  of 
pumping,  except  in  cases  where  owners  of  small  tracts, 
from  which  a  sufficient  tidal  outlet  could  not  be  secured, 
(without  the  concurrence  of  adjoining  proprietors  who 
might  refuse  to  unite  in  making  the  improvement,)  may 
find  it  advisable  to  erect  small  pumps  for  their  own  use. 
In  such  cases,  it  would  generally  be  most  economical  to 
use  wind-power,  especially  if  an  accessary  steam  pump  be 
provided  for  occasional  use,  in  emergency.  Certainly,  the 
tidal  drainage  should  first  be  resorted  to,  for  when  the 
land  has  once  been  brought  into  cultivation,  the  propriety 
of  introducing  steam  pumps  will  become  more  apparent, 


THE   RECLAIMING    OF  SALT  MABSHES.  207 

and  the  outlay  will  be  made  with  more  confidence  of  prof- 
itable return,  and,  in  all  cases,  the  tidal  outlet  should  be 
depended  on  for  the  outflow  of  all  water  above  its  level. 
It  would  be  folly  to  raise  water  by  expensive  means,  which 
can  be  removed,  even  periodically,  by  natural  drainage. 

When  pumps  are  used,  their  discharge  pipes  should  pass 
through  the  embankment,  and  deliver  the  water  at  low- 
water  mark,  so  that  the  engine  may  have  to  operate  only 
against  the  actual  height  of  the  tide  waier.  If  it  delivered 
above  high-water  mark,  it  would  work,  even  at  low  tide, 
vjaiust  a  constant  head,  equal  to  that  of  the  highest  tides. 


NOTE. — (Third  edition.)  Whether  or  not  it  will  pay  to  reclaim  salt 
marshes  depends,  not  only  on  the  cost  of  the  work  and  on  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  it  is  done,  but  also,  and  possibly  even  more  largely, 
on  the  quality  of  the  marsh.  Deep  beds  of  peat  are  not  promising  sub- 
jects for  reclamation,  because  they  settle  so  much  on  the  withdrawal  of 
their  water,  that  it  is  necessary  to  drain  them  much  more  deeply  than 
would  at  first  be  supposed.  Then  again,  while  peat  is  u  very  valuable 
addition  to  ordinary  soils,  it  seldom  constitutes  a  good  agricultural  soil 
in  itself.  If  combined  with  a  large  amount  of  earthy  sill,  it  may  make 
a  most  excellent  soil,  but  if  mainly  an  accumulation  of  decomposed 
vegetable  matter,  success  would  be  questionable.  Marshes  which  con- 
sist of  vegetable  deposits  largely  mixed  with  sea-sand,  or  such  as  lie 
on  beds  of  sea-sand,  are  not  of  great  value.  If  the  admixture  or  the 
underlying  bed  is  of  clay,  calcareous  soil,  or  any  ordinary  river  alluvion, 
the  resu'.t  of  the  improvement  should  be  most  excellent. 


CHAPTER    X. 


MALARIAL    DISEASES. 

So  far  as  remote  agricultural  districts  are  concerned,  it 
i«  not  probable  that  the  mere  question  of  health  would  in- 
duce the  undertaking  of  costly  drainage  operations,  al- 
though this  consideration  may  operate,  in  connection  with 
the  need  for  an  improved  condition  of  soil,  as  a  strong 
argument  in  its  favor.  As  a  rule,  "  the  chills  "  are  accept- 
ed by  farmers,  especially  at  the  West,  as  one  of  the  slight 
inconveniences  attending  their  residence  on  rich  lands; 
and  it  is  not  proposed,  in  this  work,  to  urge  the  evils  of 
this  terrible  disease,  and  of  "sun  pain,"  or  "  day  neuralgia." 
as  a  reason  for  draining  the  immense  prairies  over  which 
they  prevail.  The  diseases  exist, — to  the  incalculable  det- 
liment  of  the  people, — and  thorough  draining  would  re- 
move them,  and  would  doubtless  bring  a  large  average  re- 
turn on  the  investment;  —  but  the  question  is,  after  all, 
one  of  capital ;  and  the  cost  of  such  draining  as  would 
remove  fever-and-ague  from  the  bottom  lands  and  prairies 
of  the  West,  and  from  the  infected  agricultural  districts 
at  the  East,  would  be  more  than  the  agricultural  capital 
of  those  districts  could  spare  tor  the  purpose 


MALARIAL   DISEASES.  209 

In  the  vicinity  of  cities  and  towns,  however,  where 
more  wealth  has  accumulated,  and  where  the  number  of 
persons  subjected  to  the  malarial  influence  is  greater,  there 
can  be  no  question  as  to  the  propriety  of  draining,  even 
if  nothing  but  improved  health  be  the  object. 

Then  again,  there  are  immense  tracts  near  the  large 
cities  of  this  country  which  would  be  most  desirable  for 
residence,  were  it  not  that  their  occupancy,  except  with 
certain  constant  precautions,  implies  almost  inevitable  suf- 
fering from  fever-and-ague,  or  neuralgia. 

Very  few  neighborhoods  within  thirty  miles  of  the  city 
of  New  York  are  entirely  free  from  these  scourges,  whose 
influence  has  greatly  retarded  their  occupation  by  those 
who  are  seeking  country  homes ;  while  many,  who  have 
braved  the  dangers  of  disease  in  these  localities,  have  had 
sad  cause  to  regret  their  temerity. 

Probably  the  most  striking  instance  of  the  effect  of 
malaria  on  the  growth  and  settlement  of  suburban  dis- 
tricts, is  to  be  found  on  Staten  Island.  Within  five  miles 
of  the  Battery ;  accessible  by  the  most  agreeable  and  best 
managed  ferry  from  the  city ;  practically,  nearer  to  Wall 
street  than  Murray  Hill  is ;  with  most  charming  views  of 
land  and  water;  with  a  beautifully  diversified  surface,  and 
an  excellent  soil ;  and  affording  capital  opportunities  for  sea 
bathing,  it  should  be,  (were  it  not  for  its  sanitary  reputa- 
tion, it  inevitably  would  be,)  one  vast  residence-park.  Ex- 
cept on  its  extreme  northern  end,  and  along  its  Ligher 
ridges,  it  has, — and,  unfortunately,  it  deserves, — a  moet  un- 
enviable reputation  for  insalubrity.  Here  and  there,  on  the 
southern  slope  also,  there  are  favored  places  which  are  unac- 
countably free  from  the  pest,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is,  during  the 
summer  and  autumn,  unsafe  to  live  there  without  having 
constant  recourse  to  preventive  medication,  or  exercising 
unusual  and  incom  enient  precautions  with  regard  to  ex- 
posuro  to  mid-day  sun  and  evening  dow.  There  are  alwayi 
to  be  found  attractive  residences,  which  are  deserted  by 


810  DRADf/NG   FOB   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 

their  owners,  and  are  offered  for  sale  at  absurdly  low  piicea, 
There  are  isolated  instances  of  very  thorough  and  very 
costly  draining,  which  has  failed  of  effect,  because  so  ex 
tensive  a  malarial  region  cannot  be  reclaimed  by  anything 
short  of  a  systematic  improvement  of  the  whole.  * 

It  has  been  estimated  tl.at  the  thorough  drainage  of  tho 
low  lands,  valleys  and  ponds  of  the  eastern  end  of  the 
island,  including  two  miles  of  the  south  shore,  would  at 
once  add  $5,000,000  to  the  market  value  of  the  real  estate 
of  that  section.  There  can  be  no  question  that  any  radical 
improvement  in  this  respect  would  remove  the  only  ob 
stacle  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  island  by  those  who 
wish  to  live  in  the  country,  yet  need  to  be  near  to  the 
business  portion  of  the  city.  The  hope  of  such  improve- 
ment being  made,  however,  seems  as  remote  as  ever, — al- 
though any  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  sources  of  mi- 
asm,  in  country  neighborhoods,  can  readily  see  the  cause 
of  the  difficulty,  and  the  means  for  its  removal  are  as 
plainly  suggested. 

.  Staten  Island  is,  by  no  means,  alone  in  this  respect.  All 
who  know  the  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  other  sub- 
urbs of  New  York  are  very  well  aware  that  those  places 
which  are  free  from  fever-and-ague  and  malarial  neural- 
gia, are  extremely  rare. 

The  exact  cause  of  fever-and-ague  and  othei  malarial 
diseases  is  unknown,  but  it  is  demonstrated  that,  whatever 
the  cause,  it  generally  accompanies  a  combination  of  cir- 
cumstances, one  of  which  is  undue  moisture  in  the  soiL 
It  is  not  necessary  that  land  should  be  absolutely  marshy 
to  produce  the  miasm,  for  this  often  arises  on  cold,  springy 
uplands  which  are  quite  free  from  deposits  of  muck. 
Thus  far,  the  attention  of  scientific  investigators,  given 
to  the  consideration  of  the  origin  of  malarial  diseases,  has 
failed  to  discover  any  well  established  facts  concerning  it ; 
but  there  have  been  developed  certain  theories,  which 


MALARIAL   DISEASES.  211 

to  be  sustained  by  such  knowledge  a^  exists  on  the 
subject. 

Dr.  Bartlett,  in  his  work  on  the  Fevers  of  the  United 
States,  says :  —  "  The  essential,  efficient,  producing  causo 
"  of  periodical  fever,  —  the  poison  whose  action  on 
i(  the  system  gives  rise  to  the  disease, — is  a  substance  or 
"  agent  which  has  received  the  names  of  malaria,  or  marsh 
"  miasm.  The  nature  and  composition  of  this  poison  are 
"  wholly  unknown  to  us.  Like  most  other  analagous 
"  agents,  like  the  contagious  principle  of  small-pox  and  of 
"  typhus,  and  like  the  epidemic  poison  of  scarletina  and 
"  cholera,  they  are  too  subtle  to  be  recognized  by  any 
"  of  our  senses,  they  are  too  fugitive  to  be  caught  by  any 
"  of  our  contrivances. 

"  As  always  happens  in  such  cases  and  under  similar 
"  circumstances,  in  the  absence  of  positive  knowledge,  we 
"  have  been  abundantly  supplied  with  conjecture  and  spec- 
"  ulation ;  what  observation  has  failed  to  discover,  hy- 
"  pothesis  has  endeavored  and  professed  to  supply.  It  is 
"  quite  unncessary  even  to  enumerate  the  different  sub- 
"  stances  to  which  malaria  has  been  referred.  Amongst 
"  them  are  all  of  the  chemical  products  and  compounds 
"  possible  in  wet  and  marshy  localities ;  moisture  alone ; 
"  the  products  of  animal  and  vegetable  decomposition  ; 
"and  invisible  living  organisms.  *  *  *  *  Inscruta- 
"  ble,  however,  as  the  intimate  nature  of  the  substances 
"  or  agents  may  be,  there  are  some  few  of  its  laws  and 
'•'  relations  which  are  very  well  ascertained.  One  of  these 
'  consists  in  its  connection  with  low,  or  wet,  or  marshy 
1  localities.  This  connection  is  not  invariable  and  exclu- 
"  sive,  that  is,  there  are  marshy  localities  which  are  not 
"  malarious,  and  there  are  malarious  localities  which  are 
"not  marshy;  but  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  it  gen- 
"  erally  exists." 

In  a  report  to  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission, 
Dr.  Metca  fe  states,  that  all  hypotheses,  even  the  mpat 


212  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT  A1TO   HEALTH. 

plausible,  are  entirely  unsupported  by  positive  knowledge 
and  he  says :  — 

"  This  confession  of  ignorance  still  leaves  us  in  posses- 
"  sion  of  certain  knowledge  concerning  malaria,  from  which 
"  much  practical  good  may  be  derived. 

"  1st.  It  affects,  by  preference,  low  and  moist  localities. 

"  2d.  It  is  almost  never  developed  at  a  lower  tempera- 
'  ture  than  60°  Fahrenheit. 

"  3d.  Its  evolution  or  active  agency  is  checked  by  a 
"  temperature  of  32°. 

"  4th.  It  is  most  abundant  and  most  virulent  as  we  ap- 
"  proach  the  equator  and  the  sea-coast 
•    "  5th.  It  has  ai  affinity  for  dense  foliage,  which  has  the 
"  power  of  accumulating  it,  when  lying  in  the  course  of 
'  winds  blowing  from  malarious  localities. 

"  6th.  Forests,  or  even  woods,  have  the  power  of  ob- 
"  structing  and  preventing  its  transmission,  under  these 

circumstances. 

"  7th.  By  atmospheric  currents  it  is  capable  of  being 
"  transported  to  considerable  distances — probably  as  far  aa 
"  five  miles. 

"  8th.  It  may  be  developed,  in  previously  healthy  places, 
"  by  turning  up  the  soil ;  as  in  making  excavations  for 
"  foundations  of  houses,  tracks  for  railroads,  and  beds  for 
"  canals. 

"  9th.  In  certain  cases  it  seems  to  be  attracted  and  ab- 
"  sorbed  by  bodies  of  water  lying  in  the  course  of  such 
"  winds  as  waft  it  from  the  miasmatic  source. 

"  10th.  Experience  alone  can  enable  us  to  decide  as  to 
u  the  presence  or  absence  of  malaria,  in  any  given  locality. 

"  llth.  In  proportion  as  countries,  previously  malarious, 
"  are  cleared  up  and  thickly  settled,  periodical  fevers  dis- 
"  appear — in  man}'  instances  to  be  replaced  by  the  typhoid 
"  or  typhus." 

La  Roche,  in  a  carefully  prepared  treatise  on  "  Pneumo- 
nia ;  its  Supposed  Connection  with  Autumnal  Fevers,"  re« 


3CALABI1L  mSBASBS.  213 

cites  various  theories  concerning  the  mode  of  action  of 
marsh  miasm,  and  finds  them  insufficient  to  account  for 
the  phenomena  which  they  produce.  He  continues  as 
follows :  — 

"  All  the  aoove  hypotheses  failing  to  account  for  the  ef« 
"  fects  in  question,  we  are  naturally  led  to  the  admission 
"  that  they  are  produced  by  the  morbific  influence  of  some 
"  special  agent ;  and  when  we  take  into  consideration  all 
"  the  circumstances  attending  the  appearance  of  febrile 
"  diseases,  the  circumscribed  sphere  of  their  prevalence, 
"  the  suddenness  of  their  attack,  the  character  of  their 
"  phenomena,  etc.,  we  may  safely  say  that  there  is  noth- 
"  ing  left  but  to  attribute  them  to  the  action  of  some 
"  poison  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  air  of  the  infected 
"  locality;  which  poison,  while  doubtless  requiring  for  its 
"  development  and  dissemination  a  certain  degree  of  heat. 
"  and  terrestrial  and  atmospheric  moisture,  a  certain 
"  amount  of  nightly  condensation  after  evaporation,  and 
'  the  presence  of  fermenting  or  decomposing  materials, 
"  cannot  be  produced  by  either  of  these  agencies  alone, 
'•'and  though  not  indicated  by  the  chemist,  betrays  its 
"  presence  by  producing  on  those  exposed  to  its  influence 
"the  peculiar  morbid  changes  characterizing  fever." 

He  quotes  the  following  from  the  Researches  of  Dr. 
Chad  wick :  — 

"  In  considering  the  circumstances  external  to  the  resi- 
"  dence,  which  affect  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  popula- 
"  tion,  the  importance  of  a  general  land-drainage  is  devel- 
"  oped  by  the  inquiries  as  to  the  cause  of  the  prevalent 
"  diseases,  to  be  of  a  magnitude  of  which  no  conception  had. 
"  been  formed  at  the  commencement  of  the  investigation. 
"  Its  importance  is  manifestel  by  the  severe  consequences 
"  of  its  neglect  in  every  part  of  the  country,  as  well  as  by 
"  its  advantages  in  the  increasing  salubrity  and  productive- 
"  ness  wherever  the  drainage  has  been  skillful  aud  effef 
« tuaL" 


214  DRAINING  FOE  PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

La  Roche  calls  attention  to  these  facts: — That  the  ac- 
climated residents  of  a  malarious  locality,  while  they  are 
less  subject  than  strangers  to  active  fever,  show,  in  their 
physical  and  even  in  their  mental  organization,  evident 
indications  of  the  ill  effects  of  living  in  a  poisonous  atmos- 
phere,— an  evil  which  increases  with  successive  genera- 
tions, often  resulting  in  a  positive  deterioration  of  the 
race ;  that  the  lower  animals  are  affected,  though  in  a  less 
degree  than  man ;  that  deposits  of  organic  matter  which 
are  entirely  covered  with  water,  (as  at  the  bottom  of  a 
pond,)  are  not  productive  of  malaria ;  that  this  condition 
of  saturation  is  infinitely  preferable  to  imperfect  drainage 
that  swamps  which  are  shaded  from  the  sun's  heat  by 
trees,  are  not  supposed  to  produce  disease;  and  that 
marshes  which  are  exposed  to  constant  winds  are  not 
especially  deleterious  to  persons  living  in  their  immediate 
vicinity, — while  winds  frequently  carry  the  emanations  of 
miasmatic  districts  to  points  some  miles  distant,  where 
ihey  produce  their  worst  effects.  This  latter  statement  is 
substantiated  by  the  fact  that  houses  situated  some  miles 
to  the  leeward  of  low,  wet  lands,  have  been  especially  in- 
salubrious until  the  windows  and  doors  on  the  side  toward 
the  source  of  the  miasm  were  closed  up,  and  openings 
made  on  the  other  side, — and  thenceforth  remained  free 
from  the  disease,  although  other  houses  with  openings  on 
the  exposed  sides  continued  unhealthy. 

The  literature  relating  to  periodical  fevers  contains  noth- 
ing else  so  interesting  as  the  very  ingenious  article  of  Dr.  J. 
]L  Salisbury,  on  the  "  Cause  of  Malarious  Fevers,"  contrib- 
uted to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,"  for 
January,  1866.  Unfortunately,  while  there  is  no  evidence 
to  controvert  the  statements  of  this  article,  they  do  not 
seem  to  be  honored  with  the  confidence  of  the  profession,— 
not  being  regarded  as  sufficiently  authenticated  to  form  a 
basis  for  scientific  deductions.  Dr.  Salisbury  claims  to  have 
discovered  the  cause  of  malarial  fever  in  the  spores  of  a  very 


MALARIAL   DISEASES.  215 

low  order  of  plant,  which  spores  he  claims  to  have  inva- 
riably detected  in  the  saliva,  and  in  the  urine,  of  fever  pa- 
tients, and  in  those  of  no  other  persons,  and  which  he  col- 
lected on  plates  of  glass  suspended  over  all  marshes  and 
other  lands  of  a  malarious  character,  which  he  examined, 
and  which  he  was  never  able  to  obtain  from  lands  -which 
were  not  malarious.  Starting  from  this  point,  he  proceeds, 
(with  circumstantial  statements  that  seem  to  the  unprofes- 
sional mind  to  be  sufficient,)  to  show  that  the  plant  pro- 
ducing these  spores  is  always  found,  in  the  form  of  a  whit- 
ish, green,  or  brick-colored  incrustation,  on  the  surface  of 
fever  producing  lands ;  that  the  spores,  when  detached 
from  the  parent  plant,  are  carried  in  suspension  only  in 
the  moist  exhalations  of  wet  lands,  never  rising  higher 
(usually  from  35  to  60  feet,)  nor  being  carried  farther,  than 
the  humid  air  itself;  that  they  most  accumulate  in  the  up- 
per strata  of  the  fogs,  producing  more  disease  on  lands 
slightly  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  marsh  than  at  its 
very  edge;  that  fever-and-ague  are  never  to  be  found 
where  this  plant  does  not  grow ;  that  it  may  be  at  once 
introduced  into  the  healthiest  locality  by  transporting 
moist  earth  on  which  the  incrustation  is  forming;  that  the 
plant,  being  introduced  into  the  human  system  through 
the  lungs,  continues  to  grow  there  and  causes  disease ; 
and  that  quinia  arrests  its  growth,  (as  it  checks  the  mul- 
tiplication of  yeast  plants  in  fermentation,)  and  thus  sus- 
pends the  action  of  the  disease. 

Probably  it  would  be  impossible  to  prove  that  the  fore- 
going theory  is  correct,  though  it  is  not  improbable  that  it 
contains  the  germ  from  which  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  dis- 
ease and  its  causes  will  be  obtained.  It  is  sufficient  for 
the  purposes  of  this  work  to  say  that,  so  far  as  Dr.  Salis- 
bury's opinion  is  valuable,  it  is, — like  the  opinion  of  all 
other  writers  on  the  subject, — fully  in  favor  of  perfect 
drainage  as  the  one  great  preventive  of  all  malarial  di» 


216  DRAINING   FOE  PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

The  evidence  of  the  effert  of  drainage  in  removing  thi 
cause  of  malarial  diseases  is  complete  and  conclusive.  In- 
stances of  such  improvement  in  this  country  are  not  rare, 
bnt  they  are  much  less  numerous  and  less  conspicuous 
nere  than  in  England,  where  draining  has  been  much  more 
extensively  carried  out,  and  where  greater  pains  have  been 
taken  to  collect  testimony  as  to  its  effects. 

If  there  is  any  fact  well  established  by  satisfactory  ex- 
perience, it  is  that  thorough  and  judicious  draining  will 
entirely  remove  the  local  source  of  the  miasm  which  pro- 
duces these  diseases. 

The  voluminous  reports  of  various  Committees  of  the 
English  Parliament,  appointed  to  investigate  sanitary 
questions,  are  replete  with  information  concerning  expe- 
rience throughout  the  whole  country,  bearing  directly  on 
this  question. 

Dr.  Whitley,  in  his  report  to  the  Board  of  Health,  (in 
1864,)  of  an  extended  tour  of  observation,  says  of  one 
town  that  he  examined :  — 

"  Mr.  Nicholls,  who  has  been  forty  years  in  practice 
"  here,  and  whom  I  was  unable  to  see  at  the  time  of  my 
"  visit,  writes :  Intermittent  and  remittent  are  greatly  on 
"  on  the  decline  since  the  unproved  state  of  drainage  of 
"  the  town  and  surrounding  district,  and  more  particularly 
"  marked  is  this  alteration,  since  the  introduction  of  the 
"  water-works  in  the  place.  Although  we  have  occasional 
"  outbreaks  of  intermittent  and  remittent,  with  neuralgio 
"  attacks,  they  yield  more  speedily  to  remedies,  and  are 
"  not  attended  by  so  much  enlargement  of  the  liver  or 
"  spleen  as  formerly,  and  dysentery  is  of  rare  occurrence." 

Dr.  Whitley  sums  up  his  case  as  follows :  — 

"  It  would  appear  from  the  foregoing  inquiry,  that  in- 
"  termittent  and  remittent  fevers,  and  their  consequences, 
"  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  seriously  affecting  the 
"  health  of  the  population,  in  many  of  the  districts,  in  which 
u  those  diseases  were  formerly  of  a  formidable  ct  aracter 


MALARIAL   DISEASES.  217 

"Thus,  in  Norfolk,  Lincolnshire,  and  Cambridgeshire, 
"  counties  in  which  these  diseases  were  both  frequent  and 
"  severe,  all  the  evidence,  except  that  furnished  by  the 
"Peterborough  Infirmary,  and, in  a  somewhat  less  degree, 
"  in  Spaulding,  tends  to  show  that  they  are  at  the  present 
"  time,  comparatively  rare  and  mild  in  form," 

********* 

He  mentions  similar  results  from  his  investigations  hi 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  says :  — 

"  It  may,  therefore,  be  safely  asserted  as  regards  Eng- 
"  land  generally,  that : — 

"  The  diseases  which  have  been  made  the  subject  of  the 
'*  present  inquiry,  have  been  steadily  decreasing,  both  in 
"  frequency  and  severity,  for  several  years,  and  this  de- 
"  crease  is  attributed,  in  nearly  every  case,  mainly  to  one 
"  cause, — improved  land  drainage  ;  "  again : 

*'  The  change  of  local  circumstances,  unanimously  de- 
"  clared  to  be  the  most  immediate  in  influencing  the  pre- 
"valence  of  malarious  diseases,  is  land  drainage;"  and 
again: 

"  Except  in  a  few  cases  in  which  medical  men  believed 
"  that  these  affections  began  to  decline  previously  to  the 
"  improved  drainage  of  the  places  mentioned,  the  decrease 
"  in  all  of  the  districts  where  extensive  drainage  has  been 
"  carried  out,  was  stated  to  have  commenced  about  the 
"  same  time,  and  was  unhesitatingly  attributed  to  that 
"  cause." 

A  select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  condition  and  sanitary  influence 
oi  the  Thames  marshes,  reported  their  minutes  of  evi 
dence,  and  their  deductions  therefrom,  in  1854.  The  fol- 
lowing is  extracted  from  their  report : 

"  It  appears  from  the  evidence  of  highly  intelligent  and 
"eminent  gentlemer  of  the  medical  profession,  residing  in 
"  the  neighborhood  of  the  marshes  on  both  sides  of  the 
10 


218  DRAINING   FOB   PROFIT   AND   IIKAI/TH 

"  Thames  below  London  Bridge,  that  the  diseases  preva- 
"  lent  in  these  districts  are  highly  indicative  of  malarious 
"influences,  fever-and-ague  being  very  prevalent;  and 
"  that  the  sickness  and  mortality  are  greatest  in  those  lo- 
"  calities  which  adjoin  imperfectly  drained  lands,  and  far 
"  exceed  the  usual  average ;  and  that  ague  and  allied  dis- 
"  orders  frequently  extend  to  the  high  grounds  in  the  vicin- 
"  ity.  In  those  districts  where  a  partial  drainage  has 
"  been  effected,  a  corresponding  improvement  in  the  health 
"  of  the  inhabitants  is  perceptible." 

In  the  evidence  given  before  the  committee,  Dr.  P 
Bossey  testified  that  the  malaria  from  salt  marshes  varied 
in  intensity,  being  most  active  in  the  morning  and  in  the 
Summer  season.  The  marshes  are  sometimes  covered  by 
a  little  fog,  usually  not  more  than  three  feet  thick, 
which  is  of  a  very  offensive  odor,  and  detrimental  to 
health.  Away  from  the  marshes,  there  is  a  greater  ten- 
dency to  disease  on  the  side  toward  which  the  prevailing 
winds  blow. 

Dr.  James  Stewart  testified  that  the  effect  of  malaria 
was  greatest  when  very  hot  weather  succeeds  heavy  rain 
or  floods.  He  thought  that  malaria  could  be  carried  up 
a  slope,  but  has  never  been  known  to  descend,  and  that, 
consequently,  an  intervening  hill  affords  sufficient  protec- 
tion against  marsh  malaria.  He  had  known  cases  where 
the  edges  of  a  river  were  healthy  and  the  uplands  mala- 
rious. 

In  Santa  Maura  and  Zante,  where  he  had  been,  stationed 
with  the  army,  he  had  observed  that  tb*?  edge  of  a  marsh 
would  be  comparatively  healthy,  while  the  higher  places 
in  the  vicinity  were  exceedingly  unhealthy.  He  thought 
that  there  were  a  great  many  mixed  diseases  which  began 
like  ague  and  terminated  very  differently  ;  those  diseases 
would,  no  doubt,  assume  a  very  different  form  if  they 
were  not  produced  by  the  marsh  air ;  many  diseases  are 
very  difficult  to  treat,  from  being  of  a  mixed  character 


MALARIAL   DISEASES.  21 9 

beginning  like  marsh  fevers  and  terminating  like  inflam- 
matory fevers,  or  diseases  of  the  chest. 

Dr.  George  Farr  testified  that  rheumatism  and  tic-dolo- 
reux  were  very  common  among  the  ladies  who  live  at  the 
Woolwich  Arsenal,  near  the  Thames  marshes.  Some  of 
these  cases  were  quite  incurable,  until  the  patients  removed 
to  a  purer  atmosphere. 

W.  H.  Gall,  M.  D.,  thought  that  the  extent  to  which 
malaria  affected  the  health  of  London,  must  of  course  be 
very  much  a  theoretical  question ;  "  but  it  is  very  remark- 
"  able  that  diseases  which  are  not  distinctly  miasmatic,  do 
"  become  much  more  severe  in  a  miasmatic  district.  In- 
"  fluenzas,  which  prevailed  in  England  in  1847,  were  very 
"  much  more  fatal  in  London  and  the  surrounding  parts 
"  than  they  were  in  the  country  generally,  and  influenza 
"  and  ague  poisons  are  very  nearly  allied  in  their  effects. 
"  Marsh  miasms  are  conveyed,  no  doubt,  a  considerable 
"  distance.  Sufficiently  authentic  cases  are  recorded  to 
"  show  that  the  influence  of  marsh  miasm  extends  several 
u  miles."  Other  physicians  testify  to  the  fact,  that  near 
the  Thames  marshes,  the  prevalent  diseases  are  all  of  them 
of  an  aguish  type,  intermittent  and  remittent,  and  that 
they  are  accompanied  with  much  dysentery.  Dr.  John 
Manly  said  that,  when  lie  first  went  to  Barking,  he  found  a 
great  deal  of  ague,  but  since  the  draining,  in  a  population 
of  ten  thousand,  there  are  not  half-a-dozen  cases  annually 
and  but  very  little  remittent. 

The  following  Extract  is  taken  from  the  testimony 
of  Sir  Culling  Eardly,  Bart. : 

"  Chairman : — I  believe  you  reside  at  Belvidere,  in  the 
"  parish  of  Erith  ? — Yes. — Ch. :  Close  to  these  marshes  ? 
" — Yes. — Ch. :  Can  you  speak  from  your  own  knowledge, 
"  of  the  state  of  these  marshes,  with  regard  to  public 
"  health  ? — Sir  C. :  I  can  speak  of  some  of  the  results 
"  which  have  been  produced  in  the  neighborhood,  from  the 
"condition  of  the  marshes;  the  neighborhood  is  in  on« 


220  DRAFTING   FOE   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

*  continual  state  of  ague.  My  own  house  is  protected,  from 
"  the  height  of  its  position,  nnd  a  gentleman's  house  is  les? 
"  liable  to  the  influence  of  malaria  than  the  houses  of  the 
"  lower  classes.  But  even  in  my  house  we  are  liable  to 
"  ague ;  and  to  show  the  extraordinary  manner  in  which 
"  the  ague  operates,  in  the  basement  story  of  this  house 
"  where  my  men-servants  sleep,  we  have  more  than  once 
"  had  bad  ague.  In  the  attics  of  my  house,  where  my 
"maid-servants  sleep,  we  have  never  had  it  Persons  are 
"  deterred  from  settling  in  the  neighborhood  by  the  agu- 
"  ish  character  of  the  country.  Many  persons,  attracted 
"by  the  beauty  of  the  locality,  wish  to  come  down  and 
"settle;  but  when  they  find  the  liability  to  ague,  they 
"  are  compelled  to  give  up  their  intention.  I  may  mention 
"  that  the  village  of  Erith  itself,  bears  marks  of  the  influ* 
"  ence  of  malaria.  It  is  more  like  one  of  the  desolate 
"towns  of  Italy,  Ferrara,  for  instance,  than  a  healthy, 
"  happy,  English  village.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  is 
"known  to  the  committee,  that  Erith  is  the  village  describ- 
"  ed  in  Dickens'  Household  Words,  as  Dumble-down- 
"  deary,  and  that  it  is  a  most  graphic  and  correct  descrip- 
"  tion  of  the  state  of  the  place,  attributable  to  the  unhealthy 
"  character  of  the  locality." 

He  also  stated  that  the  ague  is  not  confined  to  the 
marshes,  but  extends  to  the  high  lands  near  them. 

The  General  Board  of  Health,  of  England,  at  the  close 
of  a  voluminous  report,  publish  the  following  "  Conclusions 
"  as  to  the  Drainage  of  Suburban  Lands : — 

"  1.  Excess  of  moisture,  even  on  lands  not  evidently  wet, 
"  is  a  cause  of  fogs  and  damps. 

"  2.  Dampness  serves  as  a  medium  for  the  conveyance  of 
"  any  decomposing  matter  that  may  be  evolved,  and  adds 
"to  the  injurious  effects  of  such  matters  in  the  air: — in 
"  other  words  the  excess  of  moisture  may  be  said  to  increase 
**  or  aggravate  atmospheric  impurities. 


MALAlilAL    DISEASES.  221 

"3.  The  evaporation  of  the  surplus  moisture  lowers  the 
"temperature,  produces  chills,  and  creates  or  aggravates 
"the  sudden  and  injurious  changes  or  fluctuations  by 
"  which  health  is  injured." 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  opinions  as  to  the  cause  of  ma- 
laria, and  of  the  evidence  as  to  the  effect  of  draining  in  re- 
moving the  unhealthy  condition  in  which  those  causes 
originate,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that, — in  addition  to 
the  capital  effect  of  draining  on  the  productive  capacity  of 
the  land, — the  most  beneficial  sanitary  results  may  be  con- 
fidently expected  from  the  extension  of  the  practice,  espe- 
cially in  such  localities  as  are  now  unsafe,  or  at  least 
undesirable  for  residence. 

In  proportion  to  the  completeness  and  efficiency  of  the 
means  for  the  removal  of  surplus  water  from  the  soil : — in 
proportion,  that  is,  to  the  degree  in  which  the  improved 
tile  drainage  described  in  these  pages  is  adopted, — will  be 
the  completeness  of  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  disease. 
So  far  as  the  drying  of  malarious  lands  is  concerned,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  construct  drains  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  for  agricultural  improvement. 

The  removal  of  the  waste  of  houses,  and  of  other  filth, 
will  be-  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 


NOTE.— (Third  edition.)  No  practical  result  lias  ever  come  of  the  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Salisbury  described  in  this  chapter,  but  his  investiga- 
tion followed  with  curious  closeness  the  path  through  which  later  ex- 
plorers—Pasteur, Koch,  and  others — have  reached  their  remarkable 
identification  of  microscopic  organisms  as  the  means  of  contagion  of 
a  number  of  serious  diseases  of  men  and  animals. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE  AND  TOWN  SEWERAGE  IN 
THEIR  RELATIONS  TO  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

The  following  is  extracted  from  a  report  made  by  the 
General  Board  of  Health  to  the  British  Parliament,  con- 
cerning the  administration  of  the  Public  Health  Act  and 
the  Nuisances  Removal  and  Diseases  Prevention  Acts 
from  1848  to  1854. 

"  Where  instances  have  been  favorable  for  definite  ob- 
"  servation,  as  in  broad  blocks  of  buildings,  the  effects  of 
"  sanitary  improvement  have  been  already  manifested  to  an 
"  extent  greater  than  could  have  been  anticipated,  and  than 
"  can  be  readily  credited  by  those  who  have  not  paid  atten- 
tion to  the  subject. 

"  In  one  favorable  instance,  that  of  between  600  and  700 
"persons  of  the  working  class  in  the  metropolis,  during  a 
"period  of  three  years,  the  average  rate  of  mortality  has 
"been  reduced  to  between  13  and  14  in  1000.  In  another 
"  instance,  for  a  shorter  period,  among  500  persons,  the 
"mortality  has  been  reduced  as  low  as  even  7  in  1000. 
"The  average  rate  of  mortality  for  the  whole  metropolis 
"being  23  in  1000. 

"  In  another  instance,  the  abolishing  of  cess-pools  and 
"  their  replacement  by  water-closets,  together  with  the 
M  abolishing  of  brick  drains  and  their  replacement  by  im- 


HOUSE   DBAINAGE   AND  TOWN  SEWEEAGB.  223 

permeable  and  self-cleansing  stone-ware  pipes,  has  been 
"  attended  with  an  immediate  and  extraordinary  reduction 
"  of  mortality.  Thus,  in  Lambeth  Square,  occupied  by  a 
"  superior  class  of  operatives,  in  the  receipt  of  high  wages, 
"  the  deaths,  which  in  ordinary  times  were  above  the  gen- 
"  eral  average,  or  more  than  30  in  1000,  had  risen  to  a  rate 
"  of  55  in  1000.  By  the  abolishing  of  cess-pools,  which 
"  were  within  the  houses,  and  the  substitution  of  water- 
"  closets,  and  with  the  introduction  of  tubular,  self-cleansing 
"  house-drains,  the  mortality  has  been  reduced  to  13  in  1000. 
"  The  reduction  of  the  mortality  was  effected  precisely 
among  the  same  occupants,  without  any  change  in  their 
"  habits  whatever." 

"  Sewers  are  less  important  than  the  House-Drains  and 
"  Water-Closets,  and  if  not  carrying  much  water,  may  be- 
'*  come  cess-pools.  In  the  case  of  the  Square  just  referred 
"  to,  when  cess-pools  and  drains  of  deposit  were  removed 
"  without  any  alteration  whatever  in  the  adjacent  sewers, 
"fevers  disappeared  from  house  to  house,  as  these  recep- 
"  tacles  were  filled  up,  and  the  water  closet  apparatus  sub- 
stituted, merely  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of  the  de- 
"  composing  matter  from  beneath  the  houses  to  a  distant 
"sewer  of  deposit  or  open  water  course. 

"  If  the  mortality  were  at  the  same  rate  as  in  the  model 
"dwellings,  or  in  the  improved  dwellings  in  Lambeth 
"  Square,  the  annual  deaths  for  the  whole  of  the  metropolis 
"  would  be  25,000  less,  and  for  the  whole  of  England  and 
"  Wales  170,000  less  than  the  actual  deaths. 

"If  the  reduced  rate  of  mortality  in  these  dwellings 
'•'  should  continue,  and  there  appears  to  be  no  reason  to 
"suppose  that  it  will  not,  the  extension  to  all  towns  which 
"have  been  affected,  of  the  improvements  which  have  been 
"  applied  in  these  buildings,  would  raise  the  average  age 
"at  death  to  about  forty-eight  instead  of  twenty-nine,  the 
"  present  average  age  at  death  rf  the  inhabitants  of  towns 
"  in  all  England  and  Wales." 


224  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT  AND    HEALTH. 

The  branch  of  the  Art  of  Drainage  which  relates  to  the 
removal  of  the  fcecal  and  other  refuse  wastes  of  the  popu- 
lation of  towns,  is  quite  different  from  that  which  has  been 
described  in  the  preceding  pages,  as  applicable  to  the  agri- 
cultural and  sanitary  improvement  of  lands  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  of  suburban  districts.  Still,  the  fact  that  town 
and  house  drainage  affords  a  means  for  the  preservation 
of  valuable  manures,  justifies  its  discussion  in  an  agricul- 
tural work,  and  "  draining  for  health"  would  stop  far  short 
of  completeness  were  no  attention  paid  to  the  removal  of 
the  cause  of  diseases,  which  are  far  more  fatal  than  those 
that  originate  in  an  undrained  condition  of  the  soiL 

The  extent  to  which  these  diseases,  (of  which  typhoid 
fever  is  a  type,)  are  prevented  by  sanitary  drainage,  is 
strikingly  shown  in  the  extract  which  commences  this 
chapter.  Since  the  experience  to  which  this  report  refers, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  most  fatal  epidemics  of  the 
lower  portions  of  London  originated  in  the  choked  condi- 
tion of  the  street  sewers,  whose  general  character,  as  well 
as  the  plan  of  improvement  adopted  are  described  in  the 
following  "Extracts  from  the  Report  of  the  Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works,"  made  in  1866. 

"  The  main  sewers  discharged  their  whole  contents  di- 

*  rect  into  the  Thames,  the  majority  of  them  capable  of 
"  being   emptied   only  at  the  time  of  low  wator ;   conse- 
"  quently,  as  the  tide  rose,  the  outlets  of  the  sewers  were 
"  closed,  and  the  sewage  was  dammed  back,  and  became 

'stagnant;  the  sewage  and  impure  waters  were  also 
'  constantly  flowing  from  the  higher  grounds,  in  some  in- 
'  stances  during  18  out  of  the  24  hours,  and  thus  the  thick 
'  and  heavy  substances  were  deposited,  which  had  to  be 

*  afterwards  removed  by  the  costly  process  of  hand  labor. 
"  During  long  continued  or  copious  fills  of  rain,  more  par- 
"  ticularly  when  these  occurred  at  the  time  of  high  water 
"  in  the  river,  the  closed  outlets  not  having  sufficient  stor- 
u  age  capacity  to  receive  the  increased  volume  of  sewage, 


HOUSE  DRAINA9E   AND  TOWN  SEWEBAGB.  225 

"the  houses  and  premises  in  the  low  lying  districts,  espeo 
"  ially  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  became  flooded  by 
"  the  sewage  rising  through  the  house  drains,  and  so  con- 
"  tinued  until  the  tide  had  receded  sufficiently  to  afford  a 
"  vent  for  the  pent-up  waters,  when  the  sewage  flowed 
"and  deposited  itself  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  evolv- 
"  ing  gases  of  a  foul  and  offensive  character. 

"This  state  of  things  had  a  most  injurious  effect  upon 
"  the  condition  of  the  Thames ;  for  not  only  was  the  sew- 
"  age  carried  up  the  river  by  the  rising  tide,  at  a  time 
"  when  the  volume  of  pure  water  was  at  its  minimum,  and 
"  quite  insufficient  to  dilute  and  disinfect  it,  but  it  was 
"  brought  back  again  into  the  heart  of  the  metropolis,  there 
"to  mix  with  each  day's fresli  supply,  until  the  gradual 
"progress  towards  the  sea  of  many  day's  accumulation 
"  could  be  plainly  discerned ;  the  result  being  that  the  por- 
"  tion  of  the  river  within  the  metropolitan  district  became 
"scarcely  less  impure  and  offensive  than  the  foulest  of  the 
"  sewers  themselves.  ****** 

"  The  Board,  by  the  system  they  have  adopted,  have 
"sought  to  abolish  the  evils  which  hitherto  existed,  by 
"constructing  new  lines  of  sewers,  laid  in  a  direction  at 
"right  angles  to  that  of  the  existing  sewers,  and  a  little 
"below  their  levels,  so  as  to  intercei>t  their  contents  and 
"  convey  them  to  an  outfall,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Thames 
"about  11^  miles,  and  on  the  south  side  about  14  miles, 
"  below  London  Bridge.  By  this  arrangement  as  large  a 
"  proportion  of  the  sewage  as  practicable  is  carried  away 
"  by  gravitation,  and  a  constant  discharge  for  the  remain- 
"  der  is  provided  by  means  of  pumping.  At  the  outlets, 
"  the  sewage  is  delivered  into  reservoirs  situate  on  the 
•'  banks  of  the  Thames,  and  placed  at  such  levels  as  enable 
"  them  to  discharge  into  the  river  at  or  about  the  time  of 
"high  water.  The  sewage  thus  becomes  not  only  at 
"  once  diluted  by  the  large  volume  of  water  in  the  river  at 
"  the  time  of  high  water,  but  is  also  carried  by  the  ebb 
10* 


226  DRAINING  FOB  PBOFTT  AND   HEALTH. 

"  26  miles  below  London  Bridge,  and  its  return  by  the  fol 
"  lowing  flood-tide  within  the  metropolitan  area,  is  efiee- 
"tually  prevented." 

The  details  of  this  stupendous  enterprise  are  of  sufficient 
interest  to  justify  the  introduction  here  of  the  "General 
Statistics  of  the  Works  "  as  reported  by  the  Board. 

"  A  few  statistics  relative  to  the  works  may  not  prove 
"uninteresting.  The  first  portion  of  the  works  was  com- 
"menced  in  January  1859,  being  about  five  months  after 
"the  passing  of  the  Act  authorising  their  execution. 
"  There  are  82  miles  of  main  intercepting  sewers  in  London. 
"In  the  construction  of  the  works  318,000,000  of  bricks, 
"and  880,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete  have  been  used, 
"  and  3,500,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  excavated.  The  cost, 
"when  completed,  will  have  been  about  £4,200,000.  The 
"total  pumping  power  employed  is  2,300  nominal 
"  horse  power :  and  if  the  engines  were  at  full  work,  night 
"  and  day,  44,000  tons  of  coals  per  annum  would  be  used ; 
"  but  the  average  consumption  is  estimated  at  20,000  tons. 
"The  sewage  to  be  intercepted  by  the  works  on  the  north 
"  side  of  the  river,  at  present  amounts  to  10,000,000  cubic 
"  feet,  and  on  the  south  side  4,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day ; 
"  but  provision  is  made  for  an  anticipated  increase  in  these 
"  quantities,  in  addition  to  the  rainfall,  amounting  to  a  to- 
"  tal  of  63,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day,  which  is  equal  to  a 
"  lake  of  482  acres,  three  feet  deep,  or  15  times  as  large  as 
"  the  Serpentine  in  Hyde  Park." 

A  very  large  portion  of  the  sewage  has  to  be  lifted 
thirty-six  feet  to  the  outfall  sewer.  The  works  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Thames  were  formally  opened,  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  in  April  1865. 

In  the  hope  that  the  immense  amount  of  sewage,  for 
which  an  escape  has  been  thus  provided,  might  be  profitably 
employed  in  agriculture,  advertisements  were  inserted  in 
tne  public  journals  asking  for  proposals  for  carrying  out 
such  a  scheme;  and  arrangements  were  subsequently  made 


HOUSE   DRAINAGE   AND  TOWN  SEWERAGE  227 

for  an  extension  of  the  works,  by  private  enterprise,  by  the 
construction  of  a  culvert  nine  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter, 
and  forty  miles  in  length,  capable  of  carrying  12,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  sewage  per  day  to  the  barren  sands  on  the 
coast  of  Essex;  the  intention  being  to  dispose  of  the  liquid 
to  farmers  along  the  line,  and  to  use  the  surplus  for  the 
fertilization  of  7000  acres,  (to  be  subsequently  increased,) 
which  are  to  be  reclaimed  from  the  sea  by  embankments 
and  valve  sluice-gates. 

This  project  has  not  been  carried  into  effect. — (3d  eel.} 
The  work  which  has  been  done,  and  which  is  now  in 
contemplation,  in  England,  is  suggestive  of  what  might, 
with  advantage,  be  adopted  in  the  larger  cities  in  Ameri- 
ca. Especially  in  New  York  an  improved  means  of  out- 
let is  desirable,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  high  rate 
of  mortality  of  that  city  will  be  materially  reduced  be- 
fore effective  measures  are  devised  for  removing  the  vast 
accumulations  of  filth,  which  ebb  and  flow  in  many  of  the 
larger  sewers,  with  each  change  of  the  tide ;  and  which 
are  deposited  between  the  piers  along  the  river-sides. 

It  would  be  practicable  to  construct  a  main  receiving 
sewer  under  the  river  streets,  skirting  the  city,  from  the 
vicinity  of  Bellevue  Hospital  on  the  east  side,  passing  near 
the  outer  edge  of  the  Battery,  and  continuing  to  the  high 
land  near  60th  street  on  the  west  side ;  having  its  water 
level  at  least  twenty  feet  below  the  level  of  the  street,  and 
receiving  all  of  the  sewage  which  now  flows  into  the  river. 
At  the  Battery,  this  receiving  sewer  might  be  connected, 
b)  a  tunnel,  with  the  Brooklyn  shore,  its  contents  being 
carried  to  a  convenient  point  south  of  Fort  Hamilton, — 
where  their  discharge,  (by  lifting  steam  pumps),  into  the 
waters  of  the  Lower  Bay,  would  be  comparatively  unob- 
jectionable. The  improvement  being  carried  out  to  this 
point,  it  would  be  interesting  to  consider  the  advantages 
to  result  from  the  application  of  the  sewage  to  the  sandy 
soil  on  the  south  side  of  Long  Island. 


828  DRAINING   FOR  PROFIT  AND    HEALTH. 

The  effect  of  such  an  improvement  on  the  health  of  tlie 
city, — which  is  now  in  constant  danger  from  the  putrefying 
filth  of  the  sewers,  (these  being  little  better  than  covered 
cess-pools  under  the  streets,) — would,  no  doubt,  equal  the 
improvement  that  has  resulted  from  similar  work  in 
London. 

The  foregoing  relates  only  to  the  main  outlets  for  town 
sewage.  The  arterial  drainage,  (the  lateral  drains  of  the 
system,)  which  receives  the  waste  of  the  houses  and  the 
wash  of  the  streets,  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  outlet 
sewers,  and  can  be  effective  only  when  these  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  afford  a  free  outfall  for  the  matters  that  it  de- 
livers to  them.  In  many  towns,  owing  to  high  situation, 
or  to  a  rapid  inclination  of  surface,  the  outfall  is  naturally 
so  good  as  to  require  but  little  attention.  In  all  cases,  the 
manner  of  constructing  the  collecting  drains  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance,  and  in  this  work  a  radical  change  has 
oeen  introduced  within  a  few  years  past. 

Formerly,  immense  conduits  of  porous  brick  work,  in  all 
cases  large  enough  to  be  entered  to  be  cleansed,  by  hand 
labor,  of  their  accumulated  deposits,  were  considered  neces- 
sary for  the  accommodation  of  the  smallest  discharge.  The 
3onsequence  of  this  was,  that,  especially  in  sewers  carrying 
but  little  water,  the  solid  matters  contained  in  the  sewage 
were  deposited  by  the  sluggish  flow,  frequently  causing 
the  entire  obstruction  of  the  passages.  Such  drains  always 
required  frequent  and  expensive  cleansing  by  hand,  and  the 
decomposition  of  the  filth  which  they  contained  produced 
a  most  injurious  effect  on  the  health  of  persons  living  near 
their  connections  with  the  street.  The  foul  liquids  with 
which  they  were  filled,  passing  through  their  porous 
walls,  impregnated  the  earth  near  them,  and  sometimes 
reached  to  the  cellars  of  adjacent  houses,  which  were  in 
consequence  rendered  extremely  unhealthy.  Many  such 
sewers  are  now  in  existence,  and  some  such  are  still  being 
constructed.  Not  only  are  they  unsatisfactory,  they  are 


HOUSE   DRAINAGE   AND  TOWN   SEWERAGE.  229 

much  more  expensive  in  construction,  and  require  much 
attention  and  labor  for  repairs,  and  cleansing,  than  do  the 
stone- ware  pipe  sewers  which  are  now  universally  adopted 
wherever  measures  are  taken  to  investigate  their  compara- 
tive merits.  An  example  of  the  difference  between  the  old 
and  modern  styles  of  sewers  is  found  in  the  drainage  of  the 
Westminster  School  buildings,  etc.,  in  London. 

The  new  drainage  conveys  the  house  and  surface  drain- 
age of  about  two  acres  on  which  are  fifteen  large  houses. 
The  whole  length  of  the  drain  is  about  three  thousand  feet, 
and  the  entire  outlet  is  through  two  nine  inch  pipes.  The 
drainage  is  perfectly  removed,  and  the  pipes  are  always 
clean,  no  foul  matters  being  deposited  at  any  point.  This 
drainage  has  been  adopted  as  a  substitute  for  an  old  system 
of  sewerage  of  which  the  main  was  from  4  feet  high,  by 
3  feet  6  inches  wide,  to  17  feet  high  and  6  or  7  feet  wide. 
The  houses  had  cess-pools  beneath  them,  which  were  lilled 
with  the  accumulations  of  many  years,  while  the  sewers 
themselves  were  scarcely  less  offensive.  This  condition 
resulted  in  a  severe  epidemic  fever  of  a  very  fatal  character. 

An  examination  instituted  to  discover  the  cause  of  the 
epidemic  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  facts  set  forth 
above,  and  there  were  removed  from  the  drams  and  cess- 
pools more  than  550  loads  of  ordure.  The  evaporating 
surface  of  this  filth  was  more  than  2000  square  yards. 

Since  the  new  drainage,  not  only  has  there  been  no  recur- 
rence of  epidemic  fever,  but  "  a  greater  improvement  in 
"  the  general  health  of  the  population  has  succeeded  than 
"might  be  reasonably  expected  in  a  small  block  of  houses, 
u  amidst  an  ill-conditioned  district,  from  which  it  cannot  be 
"  completely  isolated." 

The  principle  which  justifies  the  use  of  pipe  sewers  is  pre- 
cisely that  which  has  been  described  in  recommending  small 
tiles  for  agricultural  drainage, — to  wit:  that  the  rapidity  of 
a  flow  of  water,  and  if,s  power  to  remove  obstacles,  is  in  pro- 
portion to  its  depth  as  compared  with  its  width.  It  has  been 


230  DBAINING  FOB  PEOFIT  AND  HEALTH. 

found  in  practice,  tLat  a  stream  which  wends  its  sluggish 
way  along  the  bottom  of  a  large  brick  culvert,  when  con- 
centrated within  the  area  of  a  small  pipe  of  regular  form, 
flows  much  more  rapidly,  and  will  carry  away  even  whole 
( bricks,  and  other  substances  which  were  an  obstacle  to  its 
flow  in  the  larger  channel.  As  an  experiment  as  to  the 
eflicacy  of  small  pipes  Mr.  Hale,  thf  surveyor,  who  was 
directed  by  the  General  Board  of  Health  of  London  to 
make  the  trial,  laid  a  12-inch  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  a  sewer 
5  feet  and  6  inches  high,  and  3  feet  and  6  inches  wide. 
The  area  drained  was  about  44  acres.  He  found  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  stream  in  the  pipe  to  be  four  and  a  half  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  same  amount  of  water  in  the 
newer.  The  pipe  at  no  time  accumulated  silt,  and  the 
force  of  the  water  issuing  from  the  end  of  the  pipe  kept 
the  bottom  of  the  sewer  perfectly  clear  for  the  distance  ot 
12  feet,  beyond  which  point  some  bricks  and  stones  were 
deposited,  their  quantity  increasing  with  the  distance  from 
the  pipe.  He  caused  sand,  pieces  of  bricks,  stones,  mud, 
etc.,  to  be  put  into  the  head  of  the  pipe.  These  were  all 
carried  clear  through  the  pipe,  but  were  deposited  in  the 
sewer  below  it. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  in  a  flat  bottomed 
sewer,  four  feet  wide,  having  a  fall  of  eight  inches  in  one 
hundred  feet,  a  stream  of  water  one  inch  depth,  runs  very 
sluggishly,  while  the  same  water  running  through  a  12- 
inch  pipe,  laid  on  the  same  inclination,  forms  a  rapid 
stream,  carrying  away  the  heavy  silt  which  was  deposited 
in  the  broad  sewer.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  it  has  been 
found,  where  pipe  sewers  are  used,  even  on  almost  imper- 
ceptible inclinations,  that  silt  is  very  rarely  deposited,  and 
the  waste  matters  of  house  and  street  drainage  are  carried 
immediately  to  the  outlet,  instead  of  remaining  to  ferment 
and  poison  the  atmosphere  of  the  streets  through  which 
they  pass.  In  the  rare  cases  of  obstruction  which  occur, 
the  pipes  are  very  readily  cleansed  by  flushing,  at  a  tithe 


HOUSE  DRAINAGE   AND  TOWN    SEWERAGE.  231 

of  the  cost  cf  the  constant  hand-work  required  in  brick 
sewers. 

For  the  first  six  or  seven  hundred  feet  at  the  head  of  a 
sewer,  a  six  inch  pipe  will  remove  all  of  the  house  and 
street  drainage,  even  during  a  heavy  rain  fall ;  and  if  the 
inclination  is  rapid,  (say  6  inches  to  100  feet,)  the  accelera- 
tion of  the  flow,  caused  partly  by  the  constant  additions 
to  the  water,  pipes  of  this  size  may  be  used  for  consider- 
ably greater  distances.  It  has  been  found  by  actual  trial 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  increase  the  size  of  the  pipe 
sewer  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of  drainage  that 
it  has  to  convey,  as  each  addition  to  the  flow,  where 
drainage  is  admitted  from  street  openings  or  from  houses, 
accelerates  the  velocity  of  the  current,  pipes  discharging 
even  eight  times  as  much  when  received  at  intervals  along 
the  line  as  they  would  take  from  a  full  head  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  sewer. 

For  a  district  inhabited  by  10,000  persons,  a  12-inch  pipe 
would  afford  a  sufficient  outlet,  unless  the  amount  of  road 
drainage  were  unusuolly  large,  and  for  the  largest  sewers, 
pipes  of  more  than  18  inches  diameter  are  rarely  used, 
these  doing  the  work  which,  under  the  old  system,  was  al- 
loted  to  a  sewer  6  feet  high  and  3  feet  broad. 

Of  course,  the  connections  by  which  the  drainage  of 
roads  is  admitted  to  these  sewers,  must  be  provided  with 
ample  silt-basins,  which  require  frequent  cleaning  out.  In 
the  construction  of  the  sewers,  man-holes,  built  to  the  sur- 
face, are  placed  at  sufficient  intervals,  and  at  all  points 
where  the  course  of  the  sewer  changes,so  that  a  light  placed 
at  one  of  these  may  be  seen  from  the  next  one  ; — the  con 
tractor  being  required  to  lay  the  sewer  so  that  the  light 
may  be  thus  seen,  a  straight  line  both  of  inclination  and 
direction  is  secured. 

The  rules  which  regulate  the  laying  of  land-drains  ap- 
ply with  equal  force  in  the  making  of  sewers,  that  is  no 
part  of  the  pipe  should  be  less  perfect,  either  in  material 


233  DRAINING  FOB   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH. 

or  construction,  than  that  which  lies  aT  ove  it ;  and  where 
the  inclination  becomes  less,  in  approaching  the  outlet,  silt- 
basins  should  be  employed,  unless  the  decreased  fall  is  still 
rapid.  The  essential  point  of  difference  is,  that  while  land 
drains  may  be  of  porous  material,  and  should  have  open 
joints  for  the  admission  of  water,  sewer  pipes  should  be 
of  impervious  glazed  earthen-ware,  and  their  joints  should 
be  securely  cemented,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  sew- 
age, which  it  is  their  province  to  remove,  not  to  distribute. 
Drains  from  houses,  which  need  not  be  more  than  3  or  4 
inches  in  diameter,  should  be  of  the  same  material,  and 
should  discharge  with  considerable  inclination  into  the 
pipes,  being  connected  with  a  curving  branch,  directing 
the  fluid  towards  the  outlet. 

In  laying  a  sewer,  it  is  customary  to  insert  a  pipe  with 
a  branch  opposite  each  house,  or  probable  site  of  a  house. 

It  is  important  that,  in  towns  not  supplied  with  water- 
works, measures  be  taken  to  prevent  the  admission  of  too 
much  solid  matter  in  the  drainage  of  houses.  Water  being 
the  motive  power  for  the  removal  of  the  solid  parts  of  the 
sewage,  unless  there  be  a  public  supply  which  can  be 
turned  on  at  pleasure,  no  house  should  deliver  more  solid 
matter  than  can  be  carried  away  by  its  refuse  waters. 

The  drainage  of  houses  is  one  of  the  chief  objects  of 
sewerage. 

In  addition  to  the  cases  cited  above  of  the  model  lodging 
houses  in  Lambeth  Square,  and  of  the  buildings  at  West- 
minster, it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  a  remarkable  epidemic 
which  broke  out  in  the  Mnplcwood  Young  Ladies'  Institute 
in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1864,  which  was  of  so  violent  and 
fatal  a  character  as  to  elicit  a  special  examination  by  a 
committee  of  physicians.  The  family  consisted,  (pupils, 
servants,  and  all,)  of  one  hundred  and  twelve  persons.  Of 
these,  fifty-one  were  attacked  with  well-defined  typhoid 
fever  during  a  period  of  less  than  three  weeks.  Of  this 


HOUSE  DB1INAGE   AND  TOWN   SEWERAGE.  233 

number  thirteen  died.    The  following  is  extracted  irom 
the  report  of  the  committee : 

"  Of  the  74  resident  pupils  heard  from,  66  are  reported 
"as  having  had  illness  of  some  kind  at  the  close  of  the 
"school  or  soon  after.  This  is  a  proportion  of  p  or  nearly 
"  90  per  cent.  Of  the  same  74,  fifty-one  had  typhoid  fever, 
"  or  a  proportion  of  nearly  69  per  cent.  If  all  the  people 
"  in  the  town,  say  8000,  had  been  affected  in  an  equal  pro- 
portion, more  than  7000  would  have  been  ill  during  these 
"  few  weeks,  and  about  5500  of  them  would  have  had 
"  typhoid  fever,  and  of  these  over  1375  would  have  died. 
"  If  it  would  be  a  more  just  comparison  to  take  the  whole 
"  family  at  Maplewood  into  the  account,  estimating  the 
"number  at  112,  fifty-six  had  typhoid  fever,  or  50  per 
"  cent.,  and  of  these  fifty-six,  sixteen  died,  or  over  28.5  per 
"  cent.  These  proportions  applied  to  the  whole  population 
"  of  8000,  would  give  4000  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  same 
"time;  and  of  these  1140  would  have  died.  According 
"to  the  testimony  of  the  practising  physicians  of  Pittsfield, 
"the  number  of  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  during  this  period, 
"  aside  from  those  affected  by  the  influences  at  Maplewood, 
"  was  small,  some  physicians  not  having  had  any,  others 
"had  two  or  three."  These  cases  amounted  to  but  eight, 
none  of  which  terminated  fatally 

The  whole  secret  of  this  case  was  proven  to  have  been 
the  retentijn  of  the  ordure  and  waste  matter  from  the 
kitchens  and  dormitories  in  privies  and  vaults,  underneath 
or  immediately  adjoining  the  buildings,  the  odor  from 
these  having  been  offensively  perceptible,  and  under  cer- 
tain atmospheric  conditions,  having  pervaded  the  whole 
house. 

The  committee  say  "  it  would  be  impossible  to  bring 
"  this  report  within  reasonable  limits,  were  we  to  discuss  the 
"Tarious  questions  connected  with  the  origin  and  propaga- 
tion of  typhoid  fever,  although  various  theoretical  views 
w  are  held  as  to  whether  the  poison  prod  icing  the  disoaae 


234  DBAINTNG  FOB  PROFIT   AND  HEALTH. 

"  is  generated  in  the  bodies  of  the  sick,  and  communicated 
"from  them  to  the  well,  or  whether  it  is  generated  in 
**  sources  exterior  to  the  bodies  of  fever  patients,  yet  all 

*  .authorities  maintain  that  a  peculiar  poison  is  concerned 

'  in  its  production. 

"Those  who  hold  to  the  doctrine  of  contagion  admit 
"  that,  to  give  such  contagion  efficacy  in  the  production  ol 
"  wide  spread  results,  filth  or  decaying  organic  matter  is 
"  essential ;  while  those  who  sustain  the  theory  of  non- 
"  contagion — the  production  of  the  poison  from  sources 
"  without  the  bodies  of  the  sick — contend  that  it  has  its 
"  entire  origin  in  such  filth — in  decomposing  matter,  espe- 
"  cially  in  fermenting  sewage,  and  decaying  human  excreta. 

"  The  injurious  influence  of  decomposing  azotised  matter, 
"in  either  predisposing  to  or  exciting  severe  disease,  and 
"  particularly  typhoid  fever,  is  universally  admitted  among 
"  high  medical  authorities." 

The  committee  were  of  the  opinion  "  that  the  disease 
"  at  Maplewood  essentially  originated  in  the  state  of  the 
"  privies  and  drainage  of  the  place;  the  high  temperature, 
"and  other  peculiar  atmospheric  conditions  developing,  in 
"the  organic  material  thus  exposed,  a  peculiar  poison, 
"  which  accumulated  in  sufficient  quantity  to  pervade 
"the  whole  premises,  and  operated  a  sufficient  length  of 
"  time  to  produce  disease  in  young  and  susceptible  per- 
"  sons.  ******  To  prevent  the  poison  of 
"  typhoid  fever  when  taken  into  the  system,  from  produc- 
ing its  legitimate  effects,  except  by  natural  agencies, 
'*  would  require  as  positive  a  miracle  as  to  restore  a  severed 
"  head,  or  arrest  the  course  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  their 
"  spheres.  *  *  *  The  lesson  for  all,  for  the  future,  is 
"  too  obvious  to  need  further  pointing  out ;  and  the  com- 
"  mittee  cannot  doubt  that  they  would  hazard  little  in 
"  predicting  that  the  wisdom  obtained  by  this  sad  expe- 
dience, will  be  of  value  in  the  future  management  of  thit 


HOUSE   DRAINAGE   AND   TOWN   SflWEKAGE.  235 

"institution,  and  secure  precautions  which  will  forever 
"  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  a  calamity." 

The  results  of  all  sanitary  investigation  indicate  clearly 
the  vital  necessity  for  the  complete  and  speedy  removal 
from  human  habitations  of  all  matters  which,  by  their  de- 
composition, may  tend  to  the  production  of  disease, 
and  early  measures  should  be  taken  by  the  authorities  01 
all  towns,  especially  those  which  are  at  all  compactly  built, 
to  secure  this  removal.  The  means  by  which  this  is  to  be 
effected  are  to  be  found  in  such  a  combination  of  water- 
tsupply  and  sewerage,  as  will  furnish  a  constant  and  copious 
supply  of  water  to  dissolve  or  hold  in  suspension  the  whole 
of  the  waste  matters,  and  will  provide  a  channel  through 
which  they  may  be  carried  away  from  the  vicinity  of  resi- 
dences. If  means  for  the  application  of  the  sewage  water 
to  agricultural  lands  can  "be  provided,  a  part  if  not  the 
whole  of  the  cost  of  the  works  will  be  thus  returned. 

Concerning  the  details  of  house  drainage,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  say  much  within  the  limits  of  this  book.  The 
construction  of  water-closets,  soil-pipes,  sinks,  etc.,  are  too 
will  understood  to  need  a  special  description  here. 

The  principal  point,  (aside  from  the  use  of  pipes  instead 
of  brick-sewers  and  brick  house-drains,)  is  what  is  called 
in  London  the  system  of  Back  Drainage,  where  only 
principal  main  lines  of  sewers  are  laid  under  the  streets, 
all  collecting  sewers  passing  through  the  centres  of  the 
blocks  in  the  rear  of  the  houses.  Pipes  for  water  sup- 
ply are  disposed  in  the  same  manner,  as  it  is  chiefly  at 
the  rears  of  houses  that  water  is  required,  and  that  drain- 
age is  most  necessary ;  and  this  adjustment  saves  the  cost, 
the  annoyance  and  the  loss  of  fall,  which  accompany  the 
use  of  pipes  running  under  the  entire  length  of  each  house. 
Much  tearing  up  of  pavements,  expensive  ditching  in  hard 
road-ways,  and  interference  with  traffic  is  avoided,  while 
very  much  less  ditching  and  piping  is  necessary,  and  repairs 
are  niade  with  very  little  annoyance  to  the  occupants  o( 


236 


DRAINING    PQR  PBOFIT  AND   HEALTH. 


houses.  The  accompanying  diagrams,  (Figs.  48-49,)  illus- 
trate the  difference  between  the  old  system  of  drainage 
with  brick  sewers  under  the  streets,  and  brick  drains  under 
the  houses,  and  pipe  sewers  under  main  streets  and  through 
the  back  yards  of  premises.  A  measurement  of  these  two 


AVENUE. 


Fig.  48. — OLD   STYLB  HOU3B   DRAINAGE    AND   SEWEBAGB. 

methods  will  show  that  the  lengths  of  the  drains  in  tho 
new  system,  are  to  those  of  the  old,  as  1  to  2£; — the  fall  of 
the  house  drains,  (these  having  much  less  length,)  would 
be  10  times  more  in  the  one  case  than  in  the  other; — the 
main  sewers  would  have  twice  the  fall,  their  area  would  be 
only  s's,  and  their  cubic  contents  only  TV 

Experience  in  England  has  shown  that  if  the  whole  cost 
of  water  supply  and  pipe  sewers  is,  with  its  intertst,  divided 
over  a  period  of  thirty  years, — so  that  at  the  end  of  that 
time  it  should  all  be  repaid, — the  annual  charge  would  not 
be  greater  than  the  cost  of  keeping  house-drains  and  cess* 


HOUSE   DRAINAGE   AND   TOW>    SEWEIUGB. 


23-3 


pools  clean.  The  General  Board  of  Health  state  that "  the 
expense  of  cleansing  the  brick  house-drains  and  cess-pools 
for  four  or  five  years,  would  pay  the  expense  of  properly 
constructed  water-closets  and  pipe-drains,  for  the  greater 
number  of  old  premises." 


Fig.   49.— MODERN  HOUSE    DRAINAGE   AND   SEWERAGB. 

One  of  the  reports  of  this  body,  which  has  added  more 
than  any  other  organization  to  the  world's  knowledge  on 
these  subjects,  closes  with  the  following : 

"Conclusions  obtained  as  to  house  drainage,  and  the 
sewerage  and  cleansing  of  the  sites  of  towns." 

"That  no  population  living  amidst  impurities,  arising 
"  from  the  putrid  emanations  from  cess-pools,  drains  and 
"  sewers  of  deposit,  can  be  healthy  or  free  from  the  attacks 
"  of  devastating  epidemics. 

"  That  as  a  primary  condition  of  salubrity,  no  ordure 


238  DRAINING   FOR   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 

a  and  town  refuse  can  be  permitted  to  remain  beneath  01 
M  near  habitations. 

"  That  by  no  means  can  remedial  operations  be  so  con- 
"  veniently,  economically,  inoffensively,  and  quickly  effected 
•*  as  by  the  removal  of  all  such  refuse  dissolved  or  sus- 
"  pended  in  water. 

"  That  it  has  been  subsequently  proved  by  the  operation 
"  of  draining  houses  with  tubular  drams,  in  upwards  of 
"  19,000  cases,  and  by  the  trial  of  more  than  200  miles  of 
"  pipe  sewers,  that  the  practice  of  constructing  large  brick 
"  or  stone  sewers  for  general  town  drainage,  which  detain 
"  matters  passing  into  them  in  suspension  in  water,  which 
"  accumulate  deposit,  and  which  are  made  large  enough 
"  for  men  to  enter  them,  and  remove  the  deposit  by  hand 
"  labor,  without  reference  to  the  area  to  be  drained,  has 
"  been  in  ignorance,  neglect  or  perversion  of  the  above 
recited  principles. 

"That  while  sewers  so  constructed  are  productive  of 
"great  injury  to  the  public  health,  by  the  diffusion  into 
"nouses  and  streets  of  the  noxious  products  of  the  decoin- 
"  posing  matters  contained  in  them,  they  are  wasteful  from 
"the  increased  expense  of  their  construction  and  repair, 
"  and  from  the  cost  of  ineffectual  offorts  to  keep  them  free 
"  from  deposit. 

"  That  the  house-drains,  made  as  they  have  heretofore 
"  been,  of  absorbent  brick  or  stone,  besides  detaining  sub- 

*  stances  in  suspension,  accumulating  foul  deposit,  and 
"being  so  permeable  as  to  permit  the  escape  of  the  liquid 

*  and  gaseous  matters,  are  also  false  in  principle  and  waste- 
"  ful  in  the  expense  of  construction,  cleansing  and  repair. 

"  That  it  results  from  the  experience  developed  in  theso 
"  inquiries,  that  improved  tubular  house-drains  and  sewers 
"  of  the  proper  sizes,  inclinations,  and  material,  detain  and 
"  accumulate  no  deposit,  emit  no  offensive  smells,  and  re* 
"  quire  no  additional  supplies  of  water  to  keep  them  clear. 


HOUSE   DBAINAGE   AND  TOWN   SEWEBAGK.  239 

"  That  the  offensive  smells  proceeding  from  any  works 
"intended  for  house  or  town  drainage,  indicate  the  fact 
"  of  the  detention  and  decomposition  of  ordure,  and  afford 
"  decisive  evidence  of  mal-construction  or  of  ignorant  or 

defective  arrangement. 

"That  the  method  of  removing  refuse  in  suspension  in 
"water  by  properly  combined  works,  is  much  better  than 
"  that  of  collecting  it  in  pits  or  cess-pools  near  or  under- 
"  neath  houses,  emptying  it  by  hand  labor,  and  removing 
"  it  by  carts. 

"That  it  is  important  for  the  sake  of  economy,  as  well 
*'  as  for  the  health  of  the  population,  that  the  practice  of 
"  the  removal  of  refuse  in  suspension  in  water,  and  by  corn- 
"  bined  works,  should  be  applied  to  all  houses,  especially 

those  occupied  by  the  poorer  classes." 

Later  investigations  of  the  subject  have  established  two 
general  conclusions  applicable  to  the  subject,  namely,  that : 

"In  towns  all  offensive  smells  from  the  decomposition 
"  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  indicate  the  generation 
u  and  presence  of  the  causes  of  insalubrity  and  of  prevent- 
"  able  disease,  at  the  same  time  that  they  prove  defective 
"  local  administration  ; 
"  and  correlatively,  that : 

" In  rural  districts  all  continuous  offensive  smells  from 
"  animal  and  vegetable  decomposition,  indicate  prevent- 
"able  loss  of  fertilizing  matter,  loss  of  money,  and  bad 
"  husbandry" 

The  principles  herein  set  forth,  whether  relating  to  sani- 
tary improvement,  to  convenience  and  decency  of  living, 
or  to  the  use  of  waste  matters  of  houses  in  agricultural 
improvement,  are  no  less  applicable  in  America  than  else- 
where ;  and  the  more  general  adoption  of  improved  hous* 
drainage  and  sewerage,  and  of  the  use  of  sewage  matters 
in  agriculture,  would  add  to  the  health  and  prosperity  of 
its  people,  an  1  would  indicate  a  great  advance  in  civili- 
zation. 


240  DRAINING   FOE   PROFIT  AND   HEALTH.  , 

NOTE   TO   CHAPTER  XI.— (SECOND  EDITION.) 

On  reading  over  the  preceding  chapter,  I  am  disposed 
to  leave  it  essentially  as  first  written,  because  the  princi- 
ples which  it  sets  forth  are  as  true  now  as  they  were  then, 
and  because  there  has  been  no  essential  modification  in 
processes  which  makes  it  important  to  change  its  direc- 
tions. 

I  would  say,  however,  that  the  system  of  Back  Drain- 
age described,  has  not  come  into  general  use,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  is  considered  better,  all  things  taken  into  the 
account,  to  avoid,  so  far  as  possible,  the  laying  of  public 
drains  on  private  land.  Where  there  are  lanes  between 
the  backs  of  the  houses,  or  where  it  is  practicable  to 
take  a  small  strip  of  land  for  this  purpose  and  put  it  un- 
der the  control  of  the  public  authorities,  the  manifest 
advantages  of  the  system  may  be  availed  of.  In  the 
majority  of  instances,  however,  this  will  not  be  practicable. 

So  far  as  the  use  of  small  pipes  is  concerned,  ex- 
perience has  fully  justified  all  that  was  anticipated  ten 
years  ago.  Especially  where  the  question  of  storm- 
water  can  be  left  out  of  the  account,  that  is,  where  this 
can  be  allowed  to  run  through  surface  gutters,  or  where 
separate  sewers  can  be  made  for  its  removal.  What  is 
known  as  the  Separate  System,  that  is,  the  removal  of 
house-drainage  by  itself,  is  much  to  be  recommended, 
and  even  in  cities  where  house-drainage  alone  is  to  be  ac- 
commodated, very  small  pipes,  even  six  or  eight  inches  in 
diameter,  may  be  very  largely  used  for  lateral  sewers. 

The  use  of  small  pipes  is  greatly  facilitated,  and  their 
permanent  working  secured,  by  the  adoption  of  Eoger 
Field's  method  of  accumulating  the  drainage  of  a  few 
houses  at  the  upper  end  of  each  line,  including  the  roof- 
water,  in  underground  tanks  of  considerable  size,  which, 
by  the  automatic  action  of  an  ingeniously  arranged 
siphon,  discharge  their  whole  contents  with  great  rapid- 


HOUSE    DRAINAGE   AND   TOWN   SEWERAGE.          241 

ity  as  soon  as  they  become  full.  This  secures  the  thorough 
periodical  flushing  of  the  lower  line  of  the  drain,  and 
allows  us  to  use  very  low  gradients  where  a  slight  fall  is 
made  necessary  by  the  level  of  the  land.  Field's  flush- 
ing tank  is  not  only  valuable  for  this  use,  but  equally  so 
for  the  accumulating  of  the  drainage  of  single  houses, 
and  for  discharging  it  with  a  cleansing  flow  from  the 
house-drain  ;  and  enables  us  to  use  with  safety,  for  any 
private  house,  an  outlet  drain  only  four  inches  in  diameter. 
For  the  ultimate  disposal  of  the  drainage  of  country  or 
village  houses,  of  asylums  and  even  of  small  towns,  the 
delivery  of  the  flushing  tanks  by  periodical  discharge  into 
common  agricultural  drain  tiles  two  inches  in  diameter, 
laid  on  lines  two  to  six  feet  apart,  having  a  fall  of  not 
more  than  four  inches  per  hundred  feet,  with  uncemented 
joints,  and  placed  not  more  than  8  or  10  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  secures  the  absorption  of  the  liquid 
by  the  upper  portion  of  the  soil,  within  reach  of  the 
roots  of  plants,  and  of  the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  air. 
This  constitutes  the  most  efficient  means  of  disposal  yet 
devised.  I  have  had  this  system  in  operation  at  my  own 
house  since  1870,  and  find  it  entirely  satisfactory.  In 
1876,  I  adopted  it  for  the  disposal  of  the  entire  sewage  of 
the  village  of  Lenox,  Mass.,  and  I  do  not  hesitate  to 
recommend  it  as  satisfactory  in  all  similar  cases. 


SUPPLEMENTAL  CHAPTERS. 


The  directions  for  work,  as  originally  given  in  Chapter 
IV,  should  be  followed  only  as  modified  by  the  later 
information  given  below  ;  which  is  a  reprint  of  two 
articles  published  in  the  American  Agriculturist,  after 
the  body  of  this  work  was  written. 


CHAPTER  XH. 

IMPROVEMENTS   IN  DRAINING  TILES. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  in  my  article  on  "  Tile-Drain- 
ing," published  in  the  Agricultural  Annual,  and  in 
my  first  edition  of  "Draining  for  Profit  and  Draining 


Figs.  50  and  51. — TILE  AND  COLLAB. 
for  Health,"  I  have  very  strenuously  insisted  upon  the 
necessity  for  using  silt-basins  in  the  laying  of  under- 
drains,  I  have  thought  it  advisable  to  state  explicitly  the 
reasons  which  have  led  me,  in  my  own  practice  and  in 
advice  to  others,  to  dispense  almost  entirely  with  their 
use.  They  were  at  best  a  rather  imperfect  and  quite  ex- 
243 


IMPKOVEMENTS    IN    DKAINING   TILES.  243 

pensive  means  for  preventing  the  obstruction  of  drains  by 
accumulations  of  silt ;  but,  with  the  draining  materials 
procurable  at  the  time  when  the  book  and  article  above 
alluded  to  were  written,  they  were  indispensable.  Dur- 
ing the  last  year  I  have  used  largely  the  tiles  manufac- 
tured by  Messrs.  C.  W.  Boynton  &  Co.,  of  Woodbridge, 
N.  J.,  which  are  made  with  certain  modifications  and  im- 
provements that  very  greatly  lessen  the  necessity  for  silt- 
basins.  Indeed,  in  draining  my  own  farm  of  60  acres,  I 

Fig.  52.— LINE  OF  TILES  WITH  COLLARS  AS  LAID. 

have  not  made  a  single  one  of  these.  The  tiles  referred 
to  are  made  from  the  tenacious  clay  of  the  Amboy  region, 
which  is  so  much  richer  in  quality  and  so  much  more 
uniform  than  the  brick  clay  ordinarily  employed  for  the 
purpose,  that  it  is  found  easy  to  make  even  the  smallest 
tiles  two  feet  long,  which,  of  itself,  is  a  great  advantage, 
inasmuch  as  it  reduces  by  one-half  the  number  of  joints, 
which  must  always  form  a  greater  or  less  obstacle  to  the 
smooth  flow  of  water,  while  there  are  still  openings 
enough  remaining  for  the  complete  admission  of  soil 

water.      Only  round 


establishment,      the 
smaller    ones     being 

provided   with    well- 
it  lg.  53.      CURVED  TILES.       Fig.  54.  *      ..  ,,  , 

fitting      collars      for 

connecting  their  ends.  The  tile  and  collar  respec- 
tively are  shown  in  figs.  50  and  51.  The  continuous  line 
is  laid  as  shown  in  fig.  52.  The  curved  tiles,  such  as 
those  shown  in  figs.  53  and  54,  bent  to  various  degrees, 
in  order  to  suit  the  requirements  of  different  circum- 
stances, I  have  found  of  great  assistance,  especially  in  ab- 
ruptly changing  the  direction  of  main  drains.  Figure  55 
represents  an  enlarging  tile,  by  which,  in  increasing  thg 


244 


DRAINING    FOR   PROFIT   AND    HEALTH. 


size  of  a  drain,  as  from  two  to  three  inches,  the  abrupt 
rough  edge,  formed  by  inserting  the  smaller  tile  into  the 
larger  one,  may  be  avoided.  This  gradual  enlargement 
will  effectually  prevent  the  checking  of  the  flow  that  is 
unavoidable  in  all  cases  where  a  confined  stream  breaks 
abruptly  into  a  larger  conduit.  The 
most  important  improvement  that 
Fig.  55.  Boynton  has  made,  and  the  one  which 

does  more  than  any  other  to  obviate  the  need  for  silt- 
basins,  is  the  junction  piece,  shown  in  fig.  56,  which  is 
used  for  connecting  lateral  drains  with  mains,  or  ons 
main  with  another.  These  junction 
pieces  are  made  complete,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  for  all  the  different  sizes 
of  mains  and  laterals  ;  and,  by  their 
use,  the  water  from  the  lateral  is  in- 
troduced into  the  main  at  an  angle  of 
45°.  As  it  enters  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  main,  it  materially  ac- 
celerates the  flow  in  the  latter  by  its  force  of  entry, 
while,  with  the  best  joint  that  it  was  formerly  possible 
for  us  to  make  by  the  aid  of  the  tile  pick,  there  was  an 


Fig.  56. 

JUNCTION-PIECE. 


Fig.  57.— CONNECTION  OF  LATERAL  WITH  MAIN. 

interruption  of  the  flow  and  frequently  a  tendency  to  de- 
posit silt  at  the  junctions.  By  the  use  of  those  junction 
pieces,  the  points  of  intersection  are  made  the  safest  of 


IMPROVEMENTS   IN   DRAINING  TILES. 


245 


the  whole  drain,  instead  of  being,  as  they  were  under  the 
old  system,  the  most  insecure.  The  manner  in  which  the 
collared  small  lateral  is  connected  with  the  lower  part  of 
the  larger  tile  of  the  main 
drain  is  shown  in  fig.  57. 
When  the  lateral  approaches 
Fig.  58.  the  main  at  a  right  angle,  or 

at  a  very  obtuse  angle,  the  curved  tile  shown  in  fig.  54, 
should  be  used,  in  order  that  the  flow  may  strike  in  the 
direction  of  the  oblique  junction. 

Boynton  &  Co.  have  also  made  an  earthern-ware  grating 
for  covering  outlets, 
which  is  very  much 
cheaper  than  the  wire 
grating  recommended 
in  Chapter  IV  ;  and, 
as  the  last  pipe  of 
the  drain  is  glazed 
or  vitrified  ware,  the 
outer  end  may  pro- 
ject a  little  beyond 
the  mason-work  with- 
out fear  that  it  will  be  injured  by  frost.  This  grated 
outlet  is  shown  in  fig.  58.  The  grating  is  movable,  and 
can  easily  be  detached  for  cleaning  when  necessary.  The 
appearance  of  an  outlet,  so  arranged  in  connection  with 
masonry,  is  shown  in  fig.  59,  and  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive of  any  plan  more  simple  or  more  effective. 


NOTE.— (Third  edition.)  In  connection  with  the  sewerage  of  towns 
where  agricultural  drain  tiles  are  frequently  used  in  the  same  trenches 
with  the  sewer  pipes,  I  have  devised — and  have  patented — a  very  simple 
method  of  jointing  tiles  with  strips  of  muslin  as  a  substitute  for  col- 
lars. These  muslin  collars  are  not  only  cheaper  than  earthenware  col- 
lars, but  they  hug  the  tiles  so  closely  that  no  water  can  enter  them  until 
it  has  been  strained,  and  they  maintain  their  usefulness  until  after  the 
earth  has  become  so  compacted  that  the  need  for  any  collars  ha» 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

LAND  DRAINAGE— DETAILS  OF  THE  WORK. 

It  is  never  pleasant  to  confess  errors ;  but  I  am  con- 
vinced, by  what  I  have  recently  seen,  that  in  previous 
writing  about  drainage,  I  have  been  mistaken  on  one 
point.  That  is,  in  insisting,  as  a  universal  rule,  that  the 
whole  line  should  be  opened  from  the  upper  end  of  the 
lateral  to  the  lower  end  of  the  main,  and  that  the  main 
should  be  kept  open  until  the  tile-laying  and  covering 
should  be  finished  in  all  its  laterals.  This  is  frequently, 
but  not  always,  true — perhaps  it  is  not  even  generally  so. 

I  have  probably  directed  the  laying  of  over  a  hundred 
miles  of  tile-drains,  and  I  have  always  tried  to  approach 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  English  practice,  as  I  had 
seen  it  described.  I  have  bought  sets  of  English  drain- 
ing tools,  and  have  read  in  English  agricultural  books 
and  papers  about  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  done.  I 
have  seen  pictures  and  diagrams  showing  every  step  of 
the  operation,  and  have  had  letters  from  England  (in 
reply  to  my  questions),  telling  me  precisely  what  they  do 
there.  I  have  tried  for  fifteen  years — with  scores  of  Irish 
ditchers — to  imitate  them,  and  have  finally  concluded  that 
the  statements  made  were  not  true,  and  that  the  pictures 
drawn  were  drawn  from  the  imagination.  I  could  in  no 
way  get  my  ditches  dug  without  having  the  men  tramp- 
ling on  the  bottom,  and  making  more  or  less  mud,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  water — and  this  mud,  running  to- 
246 


LAND   DRAINAGE — DETAILS   OF  THE   WORK.         247 

wards  the  main,  carried  a  sure  source  of  obstruction  with 
it.  Hence,  I  have  always  recommended  that  the  whole 
line  be  opened  from  one  end  to  the  other,  before  a  tile  is 
laid,  and  that  the  tile-laying  be  commenced  at  the  upper 
ends  of  the  laterals  and  continued  down  stream,  so  that 
no  muddy  water  would  run  into  them,  as  would  be  the 
case  if  the  tiles  were  laid  from  the  lower  end  upward. 

I  am  still  convinced,  that  in  very  wet,  soft  land,  or 
where  the  grade  is  so  slight  that  great  care  is  necessary  to 
preserve  the  uniformity  of  the  fall,  this  precaution  is  ne- 
cessary. But  wherever  there  is  a  fall  of  as  much  as  one 
foot  in  a  hundred  feet,  if  the  bottom  is  ordinarily  firm, 
the  best  plan  will  be  to  reverse  the  direction,  and  to  com- 
mence laying  at  the  lower  end  of  the  drain — putting  in 
the  tile  and  covering  it  up,  as  fast  as  the  digging  pro- 
gresses. 

I  am  led  to  this  change  of  opinion,  by  seeing  the  thing 
done  by  drainers  of  English  education.  "What  I  could  not 
understand  from  description,  nor  attain  by  experiment,  is 
made  clear  by  observation.  In  the  digging  of  ordinary 
drains,  the  foot  of  the  workman  never  reaches  to  within 
less  than  a  foot  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  ;  consequently, 
there  is  no  trampling  of  the  floor  of  the  drain,  and  no 
formation  of  mud.  What  water  may  ooze  out  from  the 
land  (and,  as  but  little  of  the  ditch  is  open  at  once,  the 
amount  is  very  small),  has  no  silt  in  it,  and  can  not  ob- 
struct the  tile  through  which  it  runs. 

I  will  try  to  describe  the  process  so  that  all  may  under- 
stand it.  We  will  suppose  the  main  drain  to  be  laid  and 
Slled  in,  junction  pieces  being  placed  where  the  laterals 
are  to  come  in,  and  that  we  are  about  to  dig  and  lay  a 
lateral  emptying  into  it. 

1.  A  line  is  stretched  to  mark  one  side  of  the  ditch, 
and  the  sod  is  removed  to  a  spade's  depth  (15  inches 
wide),  for  a  length  of  about  two  rods,  and  a  ditch  is  dug 
about  18  inches  deep,  with  a  narrow  bottom. 


348 


DRAINING   FOE   PROFIT   AND   HEALTH. 


2.  A  ditching  spade  (fig.  60),  20  inches  long  in  the 
blade,  6  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  4  inches  wide  at  the 
point — of  steel  and  kept  sharp — is  forced  in  to  its  whole 
length,  and  the  earth  thrown  out.  It  will  be  necessary  in 
very  hard  ground  to  do  some  picking,  but  it  is  surprising 
to  see  with  what  ease  a  man  with  an  iron  shank  screwed 
to  the  sole  of  his  boot,  will  work  the  sharp  point  of  this 
spade  into  an  obdurate  hard-pan.  The  loose  earth  that 

escaped  the  spade 
is  removed  by  a 
scoop  (fig.  61),  4 
inches  wide,  which 
the  workman, 
walking  backward, 
draws  toward  him 
until  it  is  full, 
swinging  it  out  to 
dump  its  load  on 
the  bank.  In  this 
way  he  gets  down 
3  feet,  and  leaves 
a  smooth  floor  on 
which  he  stands. 

3.  Commencing 
again  at  the  end 
next  to  the  main, 
with  a  narrower, 

FigS.  60  to  64. — TILS-DRAINING  IMPLEMENTS.         strOngCT,         and 

sharper  spade,  of  the  same  length  or  a  little  less  (fig.  62), 
41/.,  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  3  inches  at  the  point, 
he  digs  out  another  foot  of  earth — he  facing  the  main 
and  working  back,  so  that  he  stands  always  on  the 
smooth  bottom,  3  feet  below  the  surface.  When  he  has 
dug  for  a  length  of  2  or  3  feet,  he  takes  a  snipe-bill  scoop 
(fig.  63),  only  3  inches  wide,  and,  using  it  as  he  did  the 
broader  scoop,  removes  the  loose  earth.  The  round  back 


LAND  DRAINAGE — DETAILS  OF  THE  WORK.        349 


of  this  scoop,  which  is  always  working  a  foot  below 
the  level  on  which  the  operator  stands,  and  which  per- 
forms the  offices  of  a  shovel,  smooths  and  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  trench,  making 
a  much  better  bed  for  the  tiles 
than  it  is  possible  to  get  if  it 
has  to  be  walked  on,  and  regu- 
lates the  grade  most  perfectly. 
4.  When  the  short  length 
of  ditch  has  been  nearly  all 
dug  out  and  graded,  the 
branch  on  the  junction  piece 

of  tllc  tilc  is  uncovered'  and 

E  tlit>  tile  is  laid  by  the  use  of  a 
' 


g  "tile-layer"  (fig.  G4),  operated 
o  by  a  man  standing  astride  the 
^  ditch  on  the  banks.     The  col- 
g  lar  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the 
3  branch  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
a  tile.      The  implement  lowers 
:  i  the  tile   (with    its   collar  in 
|  place),  and  the  other  end  is 
o  carefully  inserted  in  the  collar 
J^  on  the  branch.    Then  the  end 
^  of  the  second  tile  is  inserted 
£  into  the  second  collar,  and  so 
on    until    nearly  all   of    the 
graded  ditch  is  laid. 

5.  The  most  clayey  part  of 
the  subsoil  is  thrown  care- 
fully down  on  the  tile  and 
tramped  into  its  place — all  but 
the  collar  end  of  the  last  tile  being  covered — and  the  ditch 
filled  at  least  half-full  and  pounded — or  well  tramped. 

G.  Another  rod  or  two  of  the  ditch  is  opened,  dug  out, 
laid,  and  filled  in  as  above  described — the  amount  opened 


250  DRAINING  FOE  PEOFIT  AND  HEALTH. 

at  any  one  time  not  being  enough  to  allow  the  accumula- 
tion of  a  dangerous  quantity  of  water.  If  there  is  any 
considerable  amount  of  water  in  the  land,  or  if  it  is  feared 
that  it  may  rain  in  the  night,  the  tile  is  left  with  a  plug 
of  grass  or  straw,  which  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  dirt. 

Fig.  65,  gives  a  section  of  a  ditch  with  the  work  in  its 
lifferent  stages.  The  tile  is  shown  in  section. 

And  now  for  the  result  : — 

Last  year,  after  the  draining  of  Ogden  Farm  was  com- 
pleted, I  undertook  the  drainage  of  a  neighbor's  land, 
employing  the  same  gang  of  experienced  Irish  ditchers. 
The  best  bargain  I  could  make  was  for  one  dollar  per  rod 
for  digging  and  back-filling  (tile-laying  not  included)." 
The  best  men  earned  $3. 50  per  day — the  average  not  more 
than  $2.25.  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  season,  the 
work  was  suspended  until  this  year's  harvest  should  be 
completed. 

This  year,  I  hired  a  gang  of  the  tile  drainers  from 
Canada,  who  had  English  experience.  They  work  pre- 
cisely as  above  described.  The  price  paid  is  75  cents  per 
rod  for  digging,  back-filling,  and  tile-laying  (for  the 
whole  work  complete,  although,  owing  to  the  hard-pan, 
much  picking  is  required).  The  best  man  among  them 
completes  seven  rods  per  day  ($5.25),  and  the  average  is 
fully  five  rods  ($3.75).  The  amount  of  earth  handled 
(owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  ditches),  is  less  than 
one-half  of  what  it  was  last  year,  and  the  work  is  done 
with  a  neatness  and  completeness  that  I  have  never  seen 
equalled.  What  these  men  are  doing,  others  can  do  as 
well,  and  I  am  satisfied,  that  in  simple,  heavy  clays,  the 
whole  work  of  digging  and  tile-laying  can  be  done  for 
less  than  50  cents  per  rod. 


I  K  D  E  X. 


Absorption  and  Filtration 26-39 

Angles  to  be  avoided 99 

Barley ...   168 

Bartlett,  Dr.,  quoted ...211 

Base-line 145 

Boning-rods.   (111.) 125-126 

Central  Park 74-S6 

Cess-pools  and  epidemics 237 

Chadwick,  Dr.,  quoted 213 

ClaySoils 75 

"      "    baking  of 30 

"      "    made  mellow 29-30 

"      "    shrinkage   of 28 

Clinometer.    (III.) 56 

Collars 84 

Connections.    (111.)     .  132-134-243-244 

Corn,  Indian  162 

Cost  of  draining 150-153-158-250 

Cotton 169 

Country  Houses,  Drainage  . .   241 

Covering  and  filling,  cost  of 157 

for  the  joints  of  tiles 132 

"       tiles 136 

Datum-line 52-104 

Denton,  J.  Bailey,  quoted 115 

Distance  between  drains  73 

Ditches,  cost  of  digging 154-250 

Draining,  amateur 47 

"       details  of 246 

"       effe -t  on  farming 171 

"        indicated  need  9 

"       tools.   (111.) 114-243 

"        what  it  costs 150-25^ 

willitpay? 161 

jDrain?,  yards  of  excavation  155 

"       and  drained  land,  care  of.  .144 

"       howtheyact 21 

"       in  Central  Park  86 

"       obstructed,  how  cleared ...  146 

"       old,  how  formed U6 

"       rateof  fall...   90 

Drai  nage  of  asylums 241 

"         "  country  honses 241 

"          "  dwollin<r  houses... 232-240 

"  villages 241 

Drought „ 37-40 

351 


Engineering  and  Superintendence.  fJJ 

Engineers,  draining 47 

Epidemic    at   Maplewood    Ladies' 

Institute 232 

Epidemics  caused  by  cess-pools 237 

Evaporation 33 

"         effect  on  temporal  ure.CC-35 

Fallacies  in  draining  62 

Fen-lands  ol  England ...    193 

Fever  and  Ague 208 

Filling,  ditch  with  furrows.  (111.).. 141 
"         maul  for  ramming.  (III.). .138 

"         scraper  for.  (III.)...    140 

the  ditches 136 

Filtration  and  absorption 26-39 

Finishing  tools.  (111.) 123 

Flush  T.-ink,  Field's 240 

Foot-pick.  (III.) 156 

Gisborno,  Tlios.,  quoted..  28-31-35- 
47-66-78-84-93-127. 

Grading 124-156 

Grade  stakes .103 

Grade*,  computation  for 109 

"      how  to  establish 107 

Gratings  in  Silt-basins 148 

Grating-Outlets.    (111.) 245 

Hackensack  meadows? 203 

Hay 103 

House  drainage 220-240 

"  "       back  drain  system.. 

235-240. 

House  drainage,  bad,  indicated 239 

John  Johnson 1(>4 

Junction  pieces.  (111.) 244 

La  Roche,  quoted  213 

Lateral  drains 61-97-244 

"  "    direction  of 75 

"  "    how  connected Ill 

Laterals,  digging 247 

Lennox,  Mass.,  dminago 241 

Levelling  inurnment,  rill.)  5Q 

"         rod.    (III.) 53 

Levels,  how  to  take  for  drains 104 

Madden,  Dr.,  quoted 19 

Main  drain  58-96 

Malaria....  ....2I&-214-219-220 


252 


INDEX. 


Malarial  diseases  and  draina-e  216 
"             "        reports  to  Parlia- 

Sewers, Hale  on  pipe  sewers  230 
"        imperfect  2*1 

ment                    216 

'•        of  brick  defective  °2t>-235-238 

Maps,  amending  the  ..142 
"       description  of.  (111.)...  49-50- 

Sides  of  ditches  braced.  (111.)  ....  124 
Silt                                                         90 

51-54-98. 

".  basins.  (111.)  91-120-134-136-242 
"  in  tilaa                                            144 

Marking  the  liuea              116 

Meclii   Alderman   quoted               29-71 

Measuring  staff.  (111.)...  124 
Metcalf,  Dr.,  quoted  211 

Staking  out  the  lines  102 
Stater,  'island  209 

New  York  sewer  outlets  .  .  .227 
Oats                                                      108 

Stone  and  tile  drains  142 

Opening  ditches     122-247 
Outlet  93-245 
"     how  made.  (111.)  118 

Tank,  Field's  Flush  240 
Teams  used  to  open  ditches  122 
Temperature  35-66 
"          and  draining                   36 

Parkes,  Josiah,  quoted..  ..36-71-88-178 
Profile  of  a  drain.  (111.)  106 

Tile  laying...  127-249 
Tile-pick.     (I"-)  131 
Tiles  and  tile  layin<*  cost          157  250 

Puddlin"                               .   ...8-31-148 

"      Boynton  &  Co    (111)  243 

"      curved.    (111.)  244 

"      double-sole                                   80 

"      sounding  for  55 
Roots,  depth  reached.  .  .  40-67 
"       obstruction  from  93-148 
Rye                                              .     ...168 

"      drain  —  essentials  of  22 
"      enlarging.  (111.)  244 
"      bow  made  174 

Salisbury.  Dr.,  on  malarious  fever..  214 
Salt  marshes,  catch  water  drains.  .  .201 
dyke  and  ditch.  (111.).  197 
"        "         embankment         ....196 

"      junction  piece.    (111.)  244 
"      kinds  and  sizes  77-242 
"      objections  to  large  147 
"      orderin"                            .  82-101 

"        "         exclusion  of  the  sea..  195 
"        "         how  formed  194 

"      pipes  and  collars.  81 
"      rapidity  of  receivin<*  78 

"        "         muskrats  199 

"      sizes  for  different  an-as  88 

"        "         outlet  for  dr'na^e  204-205 

"      sole                                             80 

"        "         pumpino-                  .    206 

41        "         rain-fall  and  filtra:ion.204 
"        "         to  manage  crecks.193-200 
"        "         to      "         rivers  201 
"        "         npland  inundations..  201 
"        "         valve-gates  and  sluices 
204. 
Scraper  for  filling  ditches.  (I"-)     •  14° 

Tile  making,  material  for  174 
preparing  earths...   .176 
"               rolling  and  drying..  ?82 
Tobacco  169 
Tools  required  11&  248 
Town  drainage,  Board  of  Health  on  .237 
Vermin,  cause  of  obstructions  93 
Water,  depth  of.     66-70 

Sewage  in  agriculture  226 
Sewerage,  Board  of  Health  on  237 
"          ofXewYork  227 

for  removing  ordure  238 
"        in  sub-soil,  injurious  15 
"        movement  of  ...32-64-65 

Sewers  defects  of  lar<*e              228  238 

Water-courses  and  brooks  117 

"        the  London  outfall  225 
"        glazed  earthern  pipes..  229- 
230--238. 

Water-table  22 
Win.I-mills  206 
Wheat....                                 ...164-167 

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